Koh-i-Noor – The Cursed Diamond

Tucked away in an old Hindu text dating back to the year 1306 is the following description:

“He who owns this diamond will own the world,

but will also know all its misfortunes.

Only God, or a woman, can wear it with impunity.”

Such was the curse of this legendary diamond, known in stories to possess a beauty and elegance so indescribable and incomparable that kingdoms were fought, cities were destroyed and lives were lost – all for the sake of the diamond. True to its legend, the fabled diamond brought each of its past male owners much fortune and a comparable amount of misfortune that none of them were spared violence, treachery or murder for as long as they lived.

Thus was the fame and notoriety of the renowned diamond known as the Koh-i-Noor (Persian: کوه نور). Literally meaning ‘Mountain of Light’ in the Persian language, it was once the world’s largest known diamond, originally weighing 793 carats, but has now been reduced to a mere weight of 105.6 carats.

Stories surrounding the obscure origins of this diamond vary considerably. Legend has it that the Koh-i-Noor, once known as the ‘Syamantaka Mani’ (‘Prince of Diamonds’), has been around in existence since 5000 years ago, and was once in the possession of Surya, the chief solar deity in Hindu mythology. The ‘Syamantaka Mani’ has been described in Hindu literature to be a perfect piece of jewel that protected lands from natural calamities and produced daily amounts of gold for its owner. Nonetheless, some refute this as mere speculation, as there has been no mention of the jewel in any other historical source throughout India’s early history. Others believe that the Koh-i-Noor originated from a mine in the modern-day south Indian state of Andhra Pradesh (Telugu: ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్), together with its alleged double, the Darya-i-Noor (Persian: دریای نور ) (lit. ‘Sea of Light’).

Whatever its true origins may be, the first reliable mention of the Koh-i-Noor in history can be found in the Babur-Nama (Persian: بابر نامہ), the memoirs of Emperor Babur (1483 – 1530) (Persian: بابر) who founded the Moghul Dynasty of India. The earliest existence of the jewel as mentioned in the Babur-Nama was when it was in the possession of an unknown Raja of Malwa until 1294, after which he was forced to surrender it to Sultan Alauddin Khilji (Persian: علاء الدین الخلجی) (died 1316) when the latter conquered Malwa. When the Khilji Sultanate collapsed in 1320, the jewel passed into the possessions of subsequent sultanates in Delhi, namely the Tughluq, Sayyid and Lodi, all of which were short-lived.

Artist's impression of the First Battle of Panipat

As the last sultan of the Lodi sultanate, Ibrahim Lodi (Pashto: ابراهیم لودي) (died 1526) was the last to possess ownership over the Koh-i-Noor before it fell into the hands of Emperor Babur. After the former’s fateful defeat and death in the Battle of Panipat in the hands of Emperor Babur on 21 April 1526, much of his possessions, including the prized diamond and many other precious gems, entered the emperor’s treasuries. At that time, the diamond possessed no name; it was simply known as ‘the Diamond of Babur.’ In the words of the emperor himself, the diamond’s value was estimated to be enough to feed the whole world for two days.

Emperor Babur (1483 - 1530) seated on a throne

As long as Emperor Babur lived, he saw his fair share of violence and threats from numerous neighbouring kingdoms and provinces. Upon his death, the diamond was inherited by his son, Emperor Humayun (1508 - 1556) (Persian: همایون), during whose reign significant portions of Moghul territories were lost and the emperor himself was forced into exile for some time before recovering his lost territories and re-establishing his empire. After his unfortunate death (hitting his temple on a stone edge after tripping from the stairs), his son, Emperor Akbar (1542 – 1605) (Persian: اکبر), succeeded him as emperor and consequently owner of the diamond.

Emperor Akbar’s reign saw a stable and prosperous era for the Moghul Empire. Interestingly, he was said to have never kept the diamond with him nor worn it, as it remained among the other gems in his treasury. Just like his father, Emperor Jahangir (1569 – 1627) (Urdu: جہانگیر) too kept the diamond locked away in his treasury and interestingly, his reign too has been widely recognized until today as one of the most illustrious eras of the Moghul Empire.

With the ascension of Emperor Shah Jahan (1592 – 1666) (Urdu: شاه جهان) to the throne, power over the Moghul Empire and ownership of ‘the Diamond of Babur’ naturally passed into his hands. It was during his reign when the diamond was taken out from the royal treasury and placed on his famous Peacock Throne (Urdu: تخت طاؤس, Takht-i Tavus), an ornate throne commissioned by the emperor himself. Emperor Shah Jahan’s reign was highly prosperous, considered by many to be the Golden Age of the Moghul Empire. However, he died a sad death, having been deposed by his son, Aurangzeb (1618 – 1707) (Urdu: اورنگزیب), and confined under house arrest until his death in 1666.

Emperor Shah Jahan of Moghul India seated on the Peacock Throne

Under Emperor Aurangzeb’s possession, the ‘Diamond of Babur’ was cut by Hortenso Borgia, a Venetian lapidary whose clumsiness reduced the weight of the diamond from 793 carats to a mere 186 carats. The diamond was then brought to the majestic Badshahi Mosque (Urdu: بادشاہی مسجد) in Lahore (Urdu: لاہور), commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb in 1671. Emperor Aurangzeb’s reign, although prosperous and stable during its initial years, later saw a gradual decline in the strength of his empire, in part due to the numerous violent rebellions from various quarters and rulers who were dissatisfied with his perceived weak policies and increasingly Islamic administration.

The diamond remained within the confines of the Badshahi Mosque until 1739, when the Shah of Persia, Nadir Shah (1688 – 1747) (Persian: نادر شاه), launched an invasion on the disintegrating Moghul Empire. Having defeated the Moghul army under Emperor Muhammad Shah (1702 – 1748) (Urdu:  محمد شاه), Nadir Shah confiscated the Peacock Throne and the keys to the empire’s royal treasury, shipping away much of the empire’s riches back to Persia. Among these were the ‘Diamond of Babur’ and its alleged double, later named ‘Darya-i-Noor.’ It was Nadir Shah who exclaimed “Koh-i-Noor” (lit. “Mountain of Light” in Persian) in wonder when he saw the magnificent brilliance of the diamond, thus bestowing it with its name that remains till today.

The immense value of the Koh-i-Noor was well-recognized and well-known within the shah’s court. One of Nadir Shah’s consorts purportedly said, “If a strong man should take five stones, and throw one north, one south, one east, and one west, and the last straight up into the air, and the space between filled with gold and gems, that would equal the value of the Koh-i-Noor.” The diamond remained in the hands of Nadir Shah until his assassination in the hands of his own guards in 1747, which consequently resulted in the rapid disintegration of his empire.

Nadir Shah of Persia seated on the Peacock Throne

After the assassination of the shah, the Koh-i-Noor came into the hands of his subsequent successors, all of whose reigns were short-lived. One after another, his successors ascended the throne, became involved in bloody power struggles, were deposed and finally blinded. Among these successors was Shahrukh (1730 – 1796) (Persian: شاهرخ), who was loyally supported by Nadir Shah’s general, Ahmad Shah Durrani (1722 – 1772) (Persian: احمد شاه دراني). As a gift for his unwavering loyalty, Shahrukh presented Ahmad Shah with the diamond, which he subsequently brought with him as he established his own Durrani Empire in modern-day Afghanistan.

Ahmad Shah Durrani depicted with the Koh-i-noor on his crown

Following the death of Ahmad Shah Durrani, the diamond remained in the possession of his descendants and successors for several generations, each of whom experienced their fair share of battles, political turmoil and power struggles during their reigns. From ruler to ruler, the diamond changed ownership until the rule of Shah Shuja (1785 – 1842) (Pashto: شاه شجاع). When Shah Shuja was deposed from the Durrani (Afghan) throne in 1809, he fled to India with the diamond, after which he was captured and taken to Kashmir. Not long after, he found an opportunity to escape when Kashmir was invaded by Durrani (Afghan) and Sikh forces. Shah Shuja chose to follow the Sikh forces under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (Punjabi: ਰਣਜੀਤ ਸਿੰਘ) (1730 – 1839) to Lahore, where he stayed for about a year from 1813 to 1814. In return for his freedom, he was forced to surrender the precious diamond to Maharaja Ranjit Singh, thus marking the return of the diamond back into Indian hands.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the great maharaja of the glorious Sikh Empire

The diamond, however, did not remain long in Indian hands after the death of the Sikh maharaja in 1839. Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s mighty and glorious Sikh Empire started to crumble under his heirs, who were involved in a series of bloody power struggles and assassinations. During the great maharaja’s lifetime, the British held him in high regard and they were in turn respected by the maharaja, so much so that they did little to interfere in his government. Nonetheless, the maharaja’s death and the political infighting that ensued gave the British an opportunity to interfere and exert their influence in matters pertaining to the empire’s governance. With the Sikh Empire’s defeat in the Anglo-Sikh Wars, the British formally annexed the empire into British India in 1849.

In the aftermath of the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, the Treaty of Lahore was signed between the British East India Company and representatives of the Sikh Empire. One of the terms of the treaty, ratified by the then to-be British Governor-General of India, Lord Dalhousie (1812 – 1860), read:

“…the gem called the Koh-i-noor which was taken from Shah Shuja-ul-Mulk by Maharaja Ranjit Singh shall be surrendered by the Maharaja of Lahore to the Queen of England.”

Thus, the diamond was transferred permanently into the ownership of the English monarch. Indeed, Lord Dalhousie was a man who felt strongly that India’s best interest could only be served by British rule, and that Indian assets would primarily serve British interests better than it would the interests of their native land. He showed deep interest in the diamond, and upon the ratification of the treaty, perceived it as a spoil of war befitting for the Queen’s honour. Lord Dalhousie’s attempt at forcefully acquiring the diamond via the treaty drew much criticism even from some of his British contemporaries.

It was arranged by Lord Dalhousie that the Koh-i-noor be presented to Queen Victoria (1819 – 1901) herself by Maharaja Duleep Singh (Punjabi: ਦਲੀਪ ਸਿੰਘ) (1838 – 1893), the youngest son and successor of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The young maharaja, then only 12 years old, was sent to England in 1850, destined to spend the rest of his life away from his homeland and empire. With the reception of the famed diamond into the treasuries of the Queen, it was placed on exhibition in the Great Exhibition of 1851 held in Hyde Park, London for the general viewing of the British public. A report in The Times regarding the diamond stated:

“The Koh-i-noor is at present decidedly the lion of the Exhibition. A mysterious interest appears to be attached to it, and now that so many precautions have been resorted to, and so much difficulty attends its inspection, the crowd is enormously enhanced, and the policemen at either end of the covered entrance have much trouble in restraining the struggling and impatient multitude. For some hours yesterday there were never less than a couple of hundred persons waiting their turn of admission, and yet, after all, the diamond does not satisfy. Either from the imperfect cutting or the difficulty of placing the lights advantageously, or the immovability of the stone itself, which should be made to revolve on its axis, few catch any of the brilliant rays it reflects when viewed at a particular angle.”

Queen Victoria officially opening the Great Exhibition of 1851 in Hyde Park, London

Artist's impression of the Koh-i-noor on display drawing large crowds

In efforts to increase the brilliance of the diamond, Prince Albert (1819 – 1861), consort of Queen Victoria, ordered the cutting of the diamond the following year. A steam-powered mill was built especially for the job, and some of the most experienced jewelers from a large Dutch diamond merchant were entrusted with the task. It took a total of 38 days of 12 hours each, a cost exceeding £8,000 and numerous consultations from experts for the entire task to be completed, which resulted in a reduction of the diamond’s weight from 186 carats to 105 carats. Even so, the final result did not satisfy the Prince Consort, and it was decided that the Koh-i-noor should be mounted in a brooch frequently worn by Queen Victoria.

After the Queen’s demise, the Koh-i-noor was mounted into a new diamond crown worn by Queen Alexandra (1844 – 1925) during the coronation of her husband, King Edward VII (1841 – 1910). The renowned diamond was also worn as part of the crown jewels of Queens Mary and Elizabeth during the coronations of King George V and VI respectively. Today, the diamond remains in the crown of Queen Elizabeth, Consort of King George VI, and is on display at the Tower of London.

Queen Alexandra wearing her coronation crown mounted with the Koh-i-noor during the coronation of King Edward VII

Although the Koh-i-noor remains in the hands of the British until this day, much has been said and debated about its legitimate ownership. Since gaining independence in 1947, the Government of India has been lobbying for its return, claiming that the British had confiscated it from Indian hands by force. The Government of Pakistan has also laid claims on the diamond, and so did some official quarters in Iran. There have also been calls for its return to the estate of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Despite all these calls for its return, the British Government under Prime Minister David Cameron had made it clear during a state visit to India in 2013 that returning the diamond would not be an option.

So, is the Koh-i-noor really a cursed diamond as popular beliefs claim it to be? Judging from history, it may seem so. The early Delhi sultanates were mostly short-lived, and the last sultan of them, Ibrahim Lodi, suffered a major defeat and death in the hands of Emperor Babur. Violence, sudden deaths, power struggles or dethronements followed the lives of most of the diamond’s Moghul owners who kept it with them constantly. Nadir Shah died a sudden death in the hands of his own guards, while his successors’ reigns were short-lived and filled with bloody power struggles. Ahmad Shah Durrani seemed to be safe from the diamond’s ‘curse,’ but his empire under his successors certainly was not, and so were his successors themselves who were entangled in wars and political upheavals. Shah Shuja found himself deposed from his throne and it was a long time before he could regain it. Maharaja Ranjit Singh enjoyed much prosperity during his reign and lifetime, but his death marked a rapid demise of his glorious empire. And the British, although being aware of the ‘curse’ and thus only allowing a queen or queen consort to be adorned with the diamond, found their worldwide empire crumbling gradually as one by one their territories seceded to become independent jurisdictions.

So, is anyone still convinced of the ‘curse’ of the Koh-i-noor? I leave the answer to you.

The coronation crown of Queen Elizabeth, Queen Consort of King George VI, seen with the Koh-i-noor

“Allahu-akbar!” (“God is great!”) – the Great Emperor Akbar

In the year 1582, a letter arrived for King Philip II (1527 – 1598) of Spain. Part of the letter read as follows:

“As most men are fettered by bonds of tradition, and by imitating ways followed by their fathers, ancestors, relatives and acquaintances, everyone continues, without investigating their arguments and reasons, to follow the religion in which he was born and educated, thus excluding himself from the possibility of ascertaining the truth, which is the noblest aim of the human intellect. Therefore we associate at convenient seasons with learned men of all religions, thus deriving profit from their exquisite discourses and exalted aspirations.”

It was amidst raging anti-Protestant movements in Spain and beyond, in a setting where monarchial edicts legalized killings and wars against Protestant Christians in Spanish territory, when this renowned letter made its way into the hands of King Philip II. That a letter worded in such a manner should come from a Muslim ruler in Asia and be intended for the readership of a medieval European Catholic audience came as a surprise not only for the Spanish king himself, but also for many historians and lay people of today. Insofar as religious tolerance in the history of mankind is concerned, this letter is perhaps one of the greatest to ever have been written by human hands, and its writer perhaps one of the greatest ruler ever to have walked the surface of the earth.

That the writer of the above letter, a Muslim ruler in a land coloured by centuries-long Hindu resentment towards Islam (and vice versa), should command even the respect and adoration of Hindus up to today, is indeed a feat worthy of admiration.

And who exactly is this great man I am talking about? He is none other than Abu’l-Fath Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar I (Urdu: اَبُو الفَتح جَلالُ الدِّین مُحَمَّد اَکبَر‎), Shahanshah Akbar-e-Azam, or more commonly known as Emperor Akbar the Great (1542 – 1605).

Emperor Akbar (1542 - 1605) of Moghul India

Before I delve further into the story of this great man, let me first give you an overview of the Moghul Dynasty of India. The Moghul Dynasty, also known as the Mughal Dynasty, was one of the greatest dynasties in history to have ruled a substantial portion of the Indian subcontinent. Being an Islamic dynasty governed by Muslim emperors, it ruled much of Hindu-majority India, particularly in the north, from 1526 to 1857. At its zenith, the empire covered almost all of what is today India and Pakistan, and substantial portions of Bangladesh, Nepal, Afghanistan and Iran. Despite being a Muslim dynasty, its subjects comprised followers of various religions, with the majority of them being Hindus. And it was also during the rule of the Moghul Dynasty that many well-known landmarks in India and Pakistan, such as the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid (mosque) of Delhi and the Lahore Fort, were built.

Extent of the Moghul Empire of India at its zenith of power

The Taj Mahal, one of India's most well known hotspots, built during the Moghul Dynasty

The circumstances under which Emperor Akbar was born gave no indication whatsoever of his future destiny as ruler of Moghul India. Despite being the grandson of Emperor Babur (1483 – 1530), the founder of the Moghul Dynasty of India, and a descendant of the valiant conqueror Genghis Khan (1162 – 1227), Akbar was born under impoverished circumstances on 14 October 1542 in Umerkot (Urdu: عُمركوٹ), located in present-day Sindh (Urdu: سندھ), Pakistan. At that time, his father, Emperor Humayun (1508 – 1556), was removed from the throne and driven into exile by his former subordinate and governor of Bihar, Sher Shah Suri (Pashto: فريد خان شير شاہ سوري‎) (1486 – 1545). When his parents went in exile to Persia, Akbar was left in the hands of an uncle in present-day Afghanistan to be raised. He thus spent most of his youth away from the luxuries of royal indulgences, learning to hunt and fight and developing skills that would make him a fearsome warrior in the future. Although he never learned to read or write, he had a tremendous love for knowledge, and it was said that he would always have someone read a book out aloud to him every evening.

Upon the death of Sher Shah Suri in 1545, the dynasty that he established lost a capable and visionary leader, and his growing empire started disintegrating. Succession rivalries further weakened the empire, and Emperor Humayun took this as an opportunity to recapture Delhi and reestablish the Moghul Dynasty, which he finally did in 1555. Emperor Humayun thus reascended the throne, only to die several months later following an unfortunate fall from the stairs. Akbar subsequently succeeded the throne at a young age of 13, in which his influential military commander, Bairam Khan (Persian: بيرام خان‎) (died 1561), ruled as regent until his coming-of-age in 1560.

Court of Emperor Akbar 

The reign of Emperor Akbar brought about a golden era for the Moghul Dynasty in India. As a valiant warrior and brilliant strategist, he commanded a great army and led them into a decisive series of victorious battles that resulted in the subjugation and annexation of much of north India, including the strategic province of Gujarat (Gujarati: ગુજરાત), a crucial gateway to trade with the outside world. After consolidating his empire, Emperor Akbar constructed the city of Fatehpur Sikri (Hindi: फ़तेहपुर सीकरी) near Agra (Hindi: आगरा) and established it as the new capital of his empire from 1571 to 1585.

City of Fatehpur Sikri constructed by Emperor Akbar

Emperor Akbar’s policy of central governance proved to be highly effective in controlling the vast domains of the Moghul empire. One notable feature regarding his governance was the separation of the taxation system from military administration. While many rulers throughout India’s imperial history implemented systems that empowered local governors in matters of both tax collection and military administration, Akbar felt that such a system could potentially enable local governors to amass military might and wealth, consequently leading to rebellion. To the local governors, Akbar entrusted the task of maintaining peace and order, while he appointed separate tax collectors to take charge of collecting revenue from the masses. Revenue collected was to be sent directly to the central government, and local governors were also required to report directly to Akbar. In that way, both the governors and tax collectors were dependent on the central government, as neither had control of both wealth and military power. The central government would then be responsible for distributing salaries to military and civilian personnel, and allotting predetermined sums to each governor for use in their respective regions. Additionally, Akbar himself would personally take time to make regular checks on his empire’s accounts and treasuries, ensuring that no money was lost to corruption or wastage.

Emperor Akbar’s love for the arts and aesthetics brought Moghul artistry to its pinnacle. He was a keen patron of the arts, and he would frequently employ the finest poets, artists, musicians and architects into the service of his courts. Moghul architecture experienced an era of renaissance under his patronage, with the construction of striking buildings that fused elements of Islamic, Hindu and Persian designs. Poetry and literature also flourished in his courts following great contributions from renowned poets, biographers and scholars such as Abu’l-Fazl ibn Mubarak (Persian: ابو الفضل‎) (1551 – 1602), Abu al-Faiz ibn Mubarak  (1547 - 1595) (Persian: ابوالفیض بن مبارک) and Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana (1556 - 1627) (Hindi:  अब्दुल रहीम ख़ान-ए-ख़ाना), who were part of Emperor Akbar’s Navaratna (Hindi: नवरत्न) or Nine Gems, a term used to collectively refer to the nine extraordinary courtiers in his court. Besides, Emperor Akbar was known for his immense love of knowledge and intellectual pursuit, despite the fact that he was illiterate. He maintained a library full of the finest collections of his empire, and had an official read a book out aloud to him every evening in his court.

Artist's impression of royal musicians entertaining Emperor Akbar in his court

Moghul India under Emperor Akbar grew to become a highly prosperous and powerful empire in South Asia politically, economically and militarily. Indeed, the fame of the Moghul Dynasty was not only limited to the shores of the Indian Subcontinent – it even extended to as far as the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire (present-day Turkey) and the various medieval kingdoms of Europe. Besides King Philip II of Spain, as mentioned above, other European monarchs also sent emissaries to the court of Akbar in efforts to promote diplomatic ties and economic alliances, most notably from King Henry IV (1553 – 1610) of France and Queen Elizabeth I (1533 – 1603) of England. The Portuguese, who had a significant presence in Goa and were extending their influence further into Gujarat, also sought political alliances and economic goodwill with Akbar’s government, realizing that despite all their artillery and military superiority, they were nowhere more superior than Akbar’s military prowess on land.

Artwork illustrating Emperor Akbar leading his army to victory in the Siege of Chittorgarh in 1568

In spite of Emperor Akbar’s visionary policies, just governance and military might that prospered Moghul India as a whole, one thing about him stood out more than the rest – his policy of religious tolerance.

Emperor Akbar was well aware that although his government was essentially Muslim in nature, his subjects comprised people of all faiths, with Hindus forming the largest proportion. He knew that in order to ensure the stability and prosperity of his empire, he could not afford to ignore the needs and sensitivities of all his subjects, irrespective of religion. Akbar was aware that non-Muslim, particularly Hindu, resentment towards Muslim rule had existed since the time when Muslim conquerors first stepped foot on Indian soil in the 1200s, as a result of impartial and sometimes oppressive policies against non-Muslims. Despite being a Sunni Muslim and later on a follower of the Sufi or tasawwuf branch of Islam, the latter half of his rule prospered with a degree of religious tolerance and harmony probably unheard of in most Islamic governments throughout history.

From the early years of his reign, Emperor Akbar had sought to foster close ties with his Hindu subjects, in an effort to reduce tensions between Hindus and Muslims in his empire. In 1562, he married Rajkumari Hira Kunwari (Hindi: राजकुमारी हिराकुँवारी) (1542 – 1623), also known as Harkha Bai (Hindi: हरखाबाई) and later Mariam uz-Zamani Begum Sahiba (Persian: مریم الزمانی بیگم صاحبہ) after her conversion to Islam. Harkha Bai was a Rajput princess from Amber (Hindi: आमेर) or present-day Jaipur (Hindi: जयपुर). Emperor Akbar also married other Hindu princesses, and matrimonial alliances between his family and other royal families from the Rajput clans and surrounding Hindu kingdoms were fairly common. Even after marriage, Hindu members of these royal families were generally allowed to freely practice their faith without being forced to convert to Islam. Muslims and Hindus in Akbar’s household were treated with total equality, and these inter-religious matrimonial alliances brought about strengthening of ties and intercultural understanding between the Muslim Moghuls and Hindu Rajputs. The influential Hindu rulers of the various Rajput clans throughout northern India thus threw their full support behind Akbar in his reign and military expansion.

Rajkumari Hira Kunwari (1542 - 1623)

Besides, Emperor Akbar appointed many Hindus in his administration, even promoting some of them into high official positions in his court. Most notable of them were three of the Nine Gems or Navaratna of his court, namely Raja Todar Mal, Raja Man Singh I and Raja Birbal. Raja Todar Mal (Hindi: राजा टोडरमल) (died 1586) rose to become one of the most capable finance ministers in the history of Moghul India, introducing many new and improved measures in matters of revenue collection and land settlement. Raja Man Singh I (Hindi: राजा मान सिंह) (1550 – 1614) was a trusted general in Akbar’s army, and was also appointed as the governor of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Raja Birbal (Hindi: राजा बीरबल) (1528 – 1586) was appointed as the Wazir-e-Azam or Grand Vizier in Akbar’s court, advising the emperor on many important matters and was highly revered in the court for his wisdom and humour. Akbar ensured that employment and promotion in the imperial administration was done not on the basis of faith or creed, but rather on the basis of meritocracy only.

(From left) Raja Todar Mal (d. 1586), Raja Man Singh I (1550 - 1614) and Raja Birbal (1528 - 1586)

Nonetheless, most importantly to Emperor Akbar’s non-Muslim subjects as a whole was his policy of repealing extra levies placed on them by his predecessors. In 1563, Akbar abolished a special tax placed on Hindus who made pilgrimages to sacred sites, and in 1564 he repealed the jizya tax that was levied annually on non-Muslims. These taxes were perceived as a form of discrimination against non-Muslims and a subtle attempt to forcibly convert them into Islam, and their abolishment was much welcomed by non-Muslims throughout Moghul India, thus further strengthening their support for his rule. Furthermore, under Akbar’s rule, much land and money were granted not only for the construction of mosques, but also for Hindu temples throughout northern and central India, and churches in Goa. The renowned Kashi Vishwanath Temple (Hindi: काशी विश्वनाथ मंदिर) in Varanasi (Hindi: वाराणसी), for instance, enjoyed much allocation from Akbar himself, and its reconstruction was organized by Raja Todar Mal in 1585.

Artist's impression of Emperor Akbar paying homage to Guru Amar Das (1479 - 1574), the third Guru of Sikhism, in the Goindwal Sahib

Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi

Akbar’s tolerance and acceptance of India’s multi-religious existence did not just stop there. He was always interested in learning more about other religions besides Islam, and was an assiduous advocate of interfaith understanding. In 1575, he set out to build a hall called the Ibadat Khana (lit. “House of Worship”) in the Moghul capital of Fatehpur Sikri for this very purpose. To it he would invite theologians, mystics and wise courtiers of all faiths to discuss matters of spirituality. Indeed, these interfaith dialogues, which were held almost weekly, included not only Muslim ulamas of various denominations and Hindu holy men, but also Portuguese Christian missionaries, Buddhists, Jains and Zoroastrians.

It was said that these interfaith dialogues failed to achieve Akbar’s original intention of promoting better interfaith understanding, as representatives of each religion showed little respect for other religions and attempted to exert the superiority of their respective religions on each other. As a result, these interfaith dialogues became more hostile by the day, leading to increasing bitterness among the participants. Akbar finally discontinued them in 1582, but the results of the various discussions held led him to believe that there was good in every religion, subsequently prompting him to establish a new ethical system called the Din-I Ilahi (Persian: دین الهی) or Divine Faith.

Artwork illustrating Father Rodolfo Acquaviva (1550 - 1583), Jesuit missionary to India, being granted an audience with Emperor Akbar in his court

The Din-I Ilahi attempted to merge the best elements of all religions in Moghul India, especially Islam and Hinduism. It prohibited lust, pride, sensuality and slander, and promoted piety, prudence, abstinence and kindness. Particularly in line with Jainist beliefs, Din-I Ilahi also forbids the slaughter of animals. Contrary to popular misconception, Din-I Ilahi was not a new religion, but rather an ethical system that brought together the best of all religions. It had no written scriptures or hierarchical order, but was more of an informal code of living. Nonetheless, its core adherents comprised only of Akbar’s courtiers, and numbered no more than 20 people.

Interfaith dialogues in the Ibadat Khana, being participated by holy men and authoritative figures of all major religions in the Moghul Empire

No doubt, Emperor Akbar’s policies of religious toleration drew flak from not few conservative Islamic scholars of his era. Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi (1564 - 1624) (Urdu: شیخ احمد سرہندی), a prominent Islamic scholar from Punjab, criticized Akbar for what he perceived as overly liberal and anti-Islamic policies introduced by the emperor. Nonetheless, the Qadis, or Muslim judges, of Bengal went as far as declaring Akbar’s policies to be blasphemous, subsequently issuing fatwas against him, declaring him a heretic and sparking a rebellion against the Moghul government. Akbar succeeded in suppressing the rebellion and subsequently meted out severe punishments to the Qadis. In the aftermath of this, he issued a proclamation signed by all major ulamas that declared him the Caliph of the age, empowering him in matters of Islamic law. Under this new proclamation, Akbar held absolute power in selecting any one opinion above the others in the event of conflicting opinions between scholars of Islamic law. This further consolidated his position and supremacy as Caliph and leader of the Muslims.

Abu'l Fazl ibn Mubarak, one of the Navaratnas, presenting the Akbarnama (Annals of Emperor Akbar) to the emperor himself

Akbar’s supremacy in matters of Islamic law, coupled with his concept of Din-I Ilahi and his ongoing policies of religious toleration, still did not go down well with several influential Islamic scholars of his era. He would famously refer to himself as:

“Emperor of Islam, Emir of the Faithful, Shadow of God on earth (Zillullah fil-Alam), Abul Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar Badshah Gadzi (whose empire Allah perpetuate), is a most just, most wise and a most God-fearing ruler”

and in every mosque congregation that he attended, the following proclamation would be made:

“The Lord to me the Kingdom gave, He made me wise, strong and brave, He guides me through right and ruth, filling my mind with the love of truth. No praise of man could sum his state, Allahu-akbar, God is great.”

While many saw these as legitimate titles and proclamations for a great Muslim emperor and caliph, there were also not few of those who scoffed at him for exalting himself with such titles and at the same time “attempting to curry favour” with non-Muslims. Some Islamic scholars asserted that Akbar had failed to protect the sanctity of Islam in his empire by allowing regular interfaith discussions (as mentioned above), thus providing others a platform to debate and question Islamic teachings. His Din-I Ilahi concept was ultimately perceived as a move to replace Islam with a new fusion religion that centred on Akbar as God. The Arabic phrase “Allahu-akbar”, which means “God is great”, was also scoffed by some to mean “Akbar is God” instead.

Indeed, Emperor Akbar’s policies of toleration and mutual understanding in a religiously plural society such as Moghul India earned him much trust from the majority of his subjects and brought stability to the vast empire as a whole. Nonetheless, his liberal policies in matters of religion and interfaith relations frequently drew controversies from different segments of Moghul society, especially from Islamic scholars of conservative persuasions. Ultimately, whether Emperor Akbar was a genuine and true Muslim who wanted nothing but to promote mutual respect for different religions in his empire, in accordance with proper Quranic teachings, or a heretic who was bent on weakening Islamic influence in his empire so as to exalt himself as a deity, I leave the choice up to you.

Jodhaa Akbar, a Hindi-Urdu film based on the lives of Emperor Akbar and Princess Harkha Bai (Jodha Bai), starring Hrithik Roshan and Aishwarya Rai

Taj Mahal – The Majestic Crown of All India

Imagine a palace of majesty, elegance, grandeur and pure beauty beyond common reality…a majestic palace with a touch of romance and love behind its seemingly legendary story of origin…a story of love set in a royal palace, involving the likes of one of the most powerful emperors on the planet and one of the most fine-looking princesses of all time…what would your first impression be??? Think about it…

Oh, and I forgot to mention that it is an Indian palace, and the story is set in India…

Well, if you thought of the Taj Mahal, then you have hit the bull’s eye! Never mind, perhaps the title of this article itself gave away the answer…

Anyway, let us look into the secrets beneath this impressive building standing majestically in the vicinity of the city of Agra, India. Agra is a city located in the state of Uttar Pradesh in North India. Known as the city of Paradise, due to its mention in the Hindu epic of Mahabharata as Agrabana, which means Paradise in the Sanskrit language, it is the city of which the Indian rulers from the Muslim Mughal (Mogul) Dynasty made their capital and administrative centre.

Location of Agra in India

The Mughal Empire, also known as the Mogul Empire, was a Muslim empire established in 1526. It ruled extremely large areas in North and Central India in the 17th and 18th centuries, with its influence ranging from present-day Pakistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east, and from the state of Kashmir in the north all the way to the state of Karnataka in the south. In other words, the Mughal Empire controlled most of India at that time, approximately 9/10 of the total area of modern-day India. Although it was a Muslim empire, with sultans and ustaz (Muslim religious teachers) presiding over the top administration, it ruled over many Muslim, Hindu and Sikh subjects, along with minority Buddhist and Christian subjects as well.

Life and society during the Mughal (Mogul) Dynasty in India

Alright, now back to the Taj Mahal. Basically, the “Taj Mahal” means “The Crown Palace.” Standing majestically by the banks of the Yamuna River in Agra, it is one of the renowned Seven Wonders of the World. It was constructed in 1631 by the Mughal Emperor al-Sultan al-‘Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram, Abu’l-Muzaffar Shihab ud-din Muhammad, Sahib-i-Qiran-i-Sani, Shah Jahan I Padshah Ghazi Zillu’llah (Firdaus-Ashiyani), also known as Emperor Shah Jahan. The Taj Mahal was constructed in memory of his third wife, Arjumand Banu Begum, who is more commonly known as Mumtaz Mahal. Mumtaz Mahal, although being the third wife of Emperor Shah Jahan, was nonetheless his most favourite wife. “Mumtaz Mahal” was a common nickname given to Arjumand Banu Begum by Emperor Shah Jahan, in which this nickname actually means “The Beloved Jewel of the Palace.”

Emperor Shah Jahan (1592 - 1666, reigned 1628 - 1658)

Mumtaz Mahal died in the year 1631, when she was giving birth to their fourteenth child, Gauhara Begum. She died in Burhanpur, a place which is presently in the state of Madhya Pradesh in India. Upon hearing the news of the death of his most beloved wife, Emperor Shah Jahan was terribly grieved. He then ordered the construction of the Taj Mahal, which would subsequently act as a mausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal. Upon the completion of the Taj Mahal in 1653, her body was brought from Burhanpur to Agra to be buried in the Taj Mahal.

Arjumand Banu Begum, also known as Mumtaz Mahal (1593 - 1631)

However, in 1658, Emperor Shah Jahan fell sick and was subsequently overthrown by his son, Aurangzeb, who then ascended the Mughal throne. Emperor Shah Jahan was placed under house arrest by Aurangzeb in the fort of Agra, right until the former’s death in 1666. His body was then buried by Emperor Aurangzeb in the Taj Mahal, right beside his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

The Taj Mahal is a grand, white structure of marble which required 22 years in order for it to be completed. It was said that the construction of the entire building involved a whopping sum of 32 million rupees, which, if converted to present-day currency, would cost trillions of American dollars. The land on which the Taj Mahal was built once belonged to a particular Maharajah Jai Singh, whereby Emperor Shah Jahan offered the Maharajah a large palace in the centre of Agra in exchange for the piece of land. Approximately 20,000 workers were employed in the construction process, with Ustaz Ahmad Lahauri, one of the most skilled men in Islamic architecture at that time, acting as one of the chief architects of the Taj Mahal. Numerous craftsmen were brought in from Delhi and Kannauj in India, Lahore and Multan in present-day Pakistan as well as from Shiraz, Baghdad and Bukhara, which were in Persia at that time.

Emperor Aurangzeb (1618 - 1707, reigned 1658 - 1707)

Emperor Shah Jahan played an extremely active role in the construction of the Taj Mahal. Besides frequently inspecting the site of construction, he also held daily meetings with the chief architects and constructors in order to decide on the structure of the Taj’s interior and exterior, as well as to find out about the progress of the Taj’s construction. Materials from all over Asia were utilized in building the Taj, with over 1000 elephants used to transport the materials. The materials included white marble from Rajasthan, turquoise from Tibet, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, jade and crystal from China, jasper from Punjab, carnelian from Arabia, sapphire from Sri Lanka and numerous other types of gemstones.

Precious gemstones of various different types and colours

The main material used in building the Taj Mahal was white marble, thus giving the entire building a pure and amazing look. The building covers an area of 42 acres. Upon reaching the Taj Mahal, one can see a huge dome crowning the marble building at its centre, with four tall minarets of similar height to each other surrounding the dome at the corners of the building. As one enters the main archway into the building, one will see astonishing designs of flower and geometrical motives adorned with precious gemstones on the walls. Works of Arabic calligraphy expressing verses from the Quran embellish the main archways within the Taj Mahal.

Flower motives carved on the wall of the Taj Mahal

The enormous dome crowning the Taj Mahal at its centre is entirely made of white marble as well. The construction of the dome fuses Islamic architecture with elements of Hindu architecture. The dome is commonly known as an “onion dome” and it has lotus designs carved on its top. The topmost point of the dome has a finial on it (the pointed end on the top of the dome), in which this finial has a crescent moon on it – a traditional symbol of Islam. The two horns of the moon and the top pointed end of the finial all combine to form a trident shape, which is a traditional symbol of the Hindu god Shiva. As such, the dome and finial of the Taj Mahal is said to combine both Islamic and Hindu elements of architecture, reflective of the two main religions of India during the Mughal Dynasty.

The huge marble dome at the centre top of the Taj Mahal

Finial at the top of the dome - a combination of both Islamic and Hindu symbols

One of the main attractions of the Taj Mahal would, of course, be related to the very purpose of its construction. The Taj Mahal was originally constructed to serve as a magnificent mausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal. As such, there is a chamber within the building which serves as a tomb for her. In this chamber, the cenotaph (empty tomb) of Mumtaz Mahal is located right at the centre. A larger cenotaph, belonging to Emperor Shah Jahan, is located beside her cenotaph. This chamber merely serves as a memorial for the both of them, in which their bodies are not found here. Instead, their bodies are actually buried in a plain-looking chamber which is just directly beneath this memorial chamber. This is because intricate and extensive decoration of graves is prohibited in Islamic traditions. In the actual tomb below, both their bodies are buried in such a manner that allows their faces to face westwards towards the Muslim holy city, Mecca.

Tombs of Emperor Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal in the Taj Mahal

Right in front of the Taj Mahal is a picturesque garden filled with lush greenery and beautiful flowers. This garden was fashioned by the Emperor Shah Jahan to resemble the Persian gardens of that time, in which nature and symmetry were given emphasis, and geometric arrangements of plants were applied. The trees planted within the gardens are either cypress trees, which symbolize death, or fruit trees, which symbolize life. Flowers within the garden are arranged in flowerbeds, which are divided by stone pathways.

Gardens adorned with flowers and plants of all sorts surrounding the Taj Mahal

Two marble canals with fountains run through the middle of the garden. In the middle of the garden, there is also a lotus-shaped marble tank. From all corners of the garden, one can see a clear reflection of the Taj Mahal from the water in the tank. Indeed, the reflection of the white marble building on the surface of the water has become a timeless attraction for tourists from all over the globe.

Behind the Taj Mahal, on the opposite side of the Yamuna River, lies the “Mahtab Bagh” or the “Moonlight Garden.” In this garden, there is a pool which provides a marvelous reflection of the Taj Mahal at night, under the moonlight, thus the garden is known as the Moonlight Garden. It was said that after constructing the Taj Mahal for his beloved wife, Emperor Shah Jahan also desired for himself a similar building at the Mahtab Bagh. The Mahtab Bagh used to be a marvelous garden with a fantasy-like beauty under the moonlight, adorned with flowers of all varieties, fountains, large pools and a picturesque oasis. However, in the course of time, natural disasters and lack of maintenance had caused the gradual deterioration and destruction of the once beautiful Moonlight Garden. Nevertheless, restoration works have been undertaken recently to restore the Moonlight Garden back to its original state.

The "Mahtab Bagh", or Moonlight Garden behind the Taj Mahal

In a nutshell, the amazing structure and landmark of India, known as the Taj Mahal, is indeed a timeless symbol of eternal love and beauty beyond description. Referred to as “a teardrop on the face of eternity” by renowned Indian poet and playwright Rabindranath Tagore, the Taj Mahal is commonly perceived to have been “designed by giants and finished by jewelers.” Indeed, lovers from all over the world still find the Taj Mahal gardens an ideal spot to appreciate the magic of love under the moonlight, right before the ultimate symbol of eternal love that transcends time and tide – the Taj Mahal.

Reflection of the Taj Mahal on the surface of the Yamuna River, Agra