The Great Christian Physician of Islam’s Golden Age (Part 1)

Amidst the many names of distinguished scholars and philosophers of the Islamic World listed in historical records, one seems to stand out more than all the others. The exceptional eminence of this particular individual is not only attributed to his remarkable contributions in expanding knowledge in the Islamic World, but also his firm principles in practicing such knowledge with discretion, based on the lines of professional ethics and his religion. He is none other than Hunayn ibn Ishaq.

Before we delve further into the matter, it is essential for us to have some background information relevant to it. For those of you who are unfamiliar with some terminologies, here are some definitions:

1) Caliph – The title given to the Muslim ruler, head of state and leader of the Islamic community in a caliphate (خليفة, Khalifah)
2) Caliphate – The initial form of government in Islam practiced in the Islamic World during medieval and pre-modern times (خلافة, Khilāfa)
3) Ibn – The equivalent of “son of”, used in a name to denote parentage

Now, let us have a closer look on one of the most renowned Islamic empires in medieval times, known as the Abbasid Caliphate (العبّاسيّون, al-‘Abbāsīyūn) or the caliphate of Bani Abbasiyah. The Abbasid Caliphate (750 – 1258), which was founded by a descendant of Prophet Muhammad’s youngest uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (العباس بن عبد المطلب‎), established its capital in the city of Baghdad. Its territories were widespread, ranging from Persia and northwestern India to as far as modern-day Algeria and the entire Arabian Peninsula during its zenith of power. Nevertheless, it wasn’t the empire’s widespread territories and tributaries that garnered it prestige, but rather its glorious achievements in various aspects and fields.

The territory of the Abbasid Caliphate at its zenith of power

It was said that the Golden Age of Islam commenced in the 9th century and lasted up to the 13th century, spanning over most of the era of the Abbasid Caliphate. During this era, the empire flourished tremendously in various fields of knowledge, scholarship and the arts. Ranging from the sciences, astronomy and mathematics to areas of philosophy, literature and the fine arts, the Golden Age of Islam displayed an amazing assortment of knowledge and progresses. Various sources describe this era as “the cauldron of cultures” that brought together and synthesized knowledge from all over the world, especially those acquired from Roman, Greek, North African, Byzantine, Egyptian, Persian, Chinese and Indian sources.

It was against such a background that the great physician and scholar known as Hunayn ibn Ishaq was born.

Life during the Golden Age of Islam

Abu Zayd Hunayn ibn Ishaq al-Ibadi (أبو زيد حنين بن إسحاق العبادي‎) was born in 809 in the medieval Abbasid city of Al-Hira (الحيرة), presently located in Iraq. He was born into a family of Nestorian Christians, of which his father was an apothecary (pharmacist). Despite the fact that Al-Hira was within the territory of the Islamic Abbasid Caliphate at that time, the city was strongly influenced by Nestorian Christianity, with many of its inhabitants professing the religion.

Location of Al-Hira in Iraq

In his childhood days, Hunayn learned both Syriac and Arabic, which were widely used in the empire at that time. When he grew older, he enrolled in a prestigious private medical school in Baghdad, which was under the direction of a renowned Nestorian Christian physician named Yuhanna ibn Masawaiyh. Hunayn was a keen learner, perhaps somewhat too keen at times up to the extent of raising the ire of his tutor. Hunayn would frequently put forward numerous questions to Yuhanna during lessons, subsequently irritating Yuhanna. It came to a point when Yuhanna was so irritated with Hunayn’s questions that he made an impulsive decision to force Hunayn to leave the school.

Leaving the medical school in tears, Hunayn vowed to himself to return to Baghdad as a successful physician after completing his studies elsewhere. He travelled as far as Alexandria and Constantinople to acquire medical knowledge and master the Greek language. He also stayed in Basra (in present-day Iraq) for some time, where he improved his command of the Arabic language. He then returned to Baghdad in 826 and was reconciled to his former tutor Yuhanna, thereafter working closely with him.

At this point in his life, Hunayn had successfully mastered Syriac, Arabic and Greek, besides acquiring considerable medical knowledge. From his travels, Hunayn had gathered several Greek medical texts which he subsequently endeavoured to translate into Arabic on his own. His amazing talent and efforts in translating such texts caught the attention of Jibril ibn Bukhtishu (جبرائیل دوم), a physician in the court of Caliph Al-Ma’mun (786 – 833). Jibril subsequently introduced Hunayn to the Sons of Musa.

At this juncture, it is perhaps essential for us to get to know the Sons of Musa better. The Sons of Musa (بنو موسى‎, Banū Mūsā) were three sons of an astrologer named Musa ibn Shakir. They were prominent and influential scholars serving in the famous House of Wisdom in Baghdad. As to what the House of Wisdom is, I will be covering more on it in the next part of this article. The names of the three Sons of Musa are:

1) Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Musa ibn Shakir (محمد بن موسى بن شاكر‎)
2) Ahmad ibn Musa ibn Shakir (أحمد بن موسى بن شاكر)
3) Al-Hasan ibn Musa ibn Shakir (الحسن بن موسى بن شاكر)

A Syrian stamp depicting the three Sons of Musa (Banu Musa)

Hence, Jibril, after discovering Hunayn’s superb abilities in translating Greek medical texts, decided to introduce him to the renowned three Sons of Musa, a privilege which would tremendously help in propelling Hunayn further up the ladder of success. For some time, Hunayn served as a translator of academic works under the supervision of the Sons of Musa, earning considerable amounts of payment in the process.

At a time when philosophy, learning and scientific knowledge were highly prized throughout the Muslim World, translators became exceedingly indispensable assets. The fact that many scientific and philosophical works prior to the Islamic era were written in Greek rendered Greek translators even more valuable and reputable. As a result of greater demand for capable Greek translators to translate Greek works into Arabic, Hunayn’s talents and efforts in translating Greek academic works flared out even more, until the extent of capturing the eye of Caliph Al-Ma’mun himself.

Caliph Al-Ma’mun, who was an enthusiastic patron of learning, emphasized much on the translation of Greek scientific writings into Arabic in order to make them accessible to all within his empire. Hence, upon seeing how much talent the young translator possessed, Caliph Al-Ma’mun decided to put Hunayn in charge of the House of Wisdom in 830. Hunayn also had the privilege of travelling often to Constantinople under the caliph’s sponsorship in order to search for additional Greek academic manuscripts to be translated into Arabic. Hunayn’s translations bore such remarkable quality that he was often paid in gold the weight of his translated works.

An artist's impression of science in the medieval Islamic world

While serving in the House of Wisdom, Hunayn rapidly rocketed up to the pinnacle of success in his career. Not only was he an outstanding translator and scholar, he was also a prolific writer and competent physician. His vast knowledge and skills in the field of medicine earned him much fame. Hunayn’s services and expertise were much sought after, especially in difficult medical cases which other physicians could not treat. He was frequently consulted for advice and assistance in matters pertaining to medicine even by other well-known physicians of his time.

Hunayn served as a translator and scholar under several caliphs succeeding Caliph Al-Ma’mun, namely Caliph Al-Mu’tasim (794 – 842), Caliph Al-Wathiq (died 847) and Caliph Al-Mutawakkil (821 – 861). It was during the reign of Caliph Al-Mutawakkil when Hunayn reached the summit of glory as a physician. Seeing how outstanding Hunayn was in the field of medicine, Caliph Al-Mutawakkil appointed him to be his personal physician.

A depiction of a caliph from the medieval Islamic world

Nevertheless, according to a well-known story, the caliph initially had some suspicions against the great physician. During that time, knowledge of poisons and methods to concoct them were mostly kept by physicians and such knowledge was rarely, if at all, disclosed to anyone else. Consequently, many rulers of the era were extremely fearful of being poisoned by untrustworthy physicians. Although Hunayn was also well-known for his integrity in practicing medicine, the caliph still held this fear within him. Hence, the caliph decided to test Hunayn in order to allay his fears.

A manuscript of a work from the Abbasid era

Caliph Al-Mutawakkil asked Hunayn to concoct a powerful poison for him, requiring it in order to eliminate an enemy. He offered tremendous rewards to the great physician if this request could be fulfilled. Hunayn declined the offer, stating that he had spent his lifetime learning about the beneficial aspects of drugs and would require a few more years to acquire knowledge on drugs with lethal effects. The caliph insisted that he required the drug immediately and subsequently doubled the offer. Nonetheless, Hunayn stood by the same reply and refused the offer altogether.

As a result of Hunayn’s refusal to concoct the poison, the caliph had him thrown into prison and threatened with execution. The great physician remained unfazed at this predicament and stood firmly by his absolute refusal to give in to the caliph’s demands. To Hunayn’s surprise, the caliph released him after some time and even enormously rewarded him and promoted him for refusing to give in. The caliph then explained to Hunayn that the entire incident was merely a test to see whether the latter was a trustworthy physician or not. When asked as to why he incessantly refused to give in to the caliph’s demands despite being imprisoned and threatened with death, Hunayn replied:

“Two things, my religion and my profession. My religion commands us to do good, even to our enemies, so much more to our friends, and my profession forbids us to do harm to our kindred, as it is instituted for the benefit and the welfare of the human race, and God imposed on physicians the oath not to compose mortiferous remedies.”

After the death of Caliph Al-Mutawakkil, Hunayn continued enjoying the favour of subsequent caliphs until his death, namely Caliph Al-Muntasir (died 862), Caliph Al-Musta’in (died 866), Caliph Al-Mu’tazz (died 869), Caliph Al-Muhtadi (died 870) and Caliph Al-Mu’tamid (844 – 892). Hunayn died in 873 in Baghdad at the age of 64, leaving behind a legacy of scientific and medical advancements in the form of translations and self-written works. It was this legacy, a legacy from a prominent Nestorian Christian scholar and physician, that has contributed a great deal to medical and scientific progresses during the Golden Age of Islam.

Coins from the Abbasid era

In the next part of this article, I will be covering more on the translations and written works of the great Nestorian Christian physician which have contributed vastly to the scientific progresses during the Golden Age of Islam.

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**Contents of this article:

1. Part 1 - overview of the life of Hunayn ibn Ishaq

2. Part 2 - works & translations of Hunayn ibn Ishaq

3. Part 3 - a special story in the life of Hunayn ibn Ishaq

The Great Christian Physician of Islam’s Golden Age (Part 2)

In the preceding part of this article, I have given you an overview of the biography of Hunayn ibn Ishaq, a renowned Nestorian Christian translator, scholar and physician during the Golden Age of Islam of the Abbasid Caliphate. In this section, I will then give you a deeper insight into the House of Wisdom which Hunayn served in, as well as the numerous translated and self-written works of the great physician.

Before we move on, it will be useful for us to find out more about the famous House of Wisdom that I’ve mentioned in the preceding part of this article.

Activities of scholars in the House of Wisdom (Baitul Hikmah)

Basically, the House of Wisdom, also known as Bait al-Hikma (بيت الحكمة) or Baitul Hikmah, was the main library and institution of translation in the Abbasid empire. Situated in the Abbasid capital of Baghdad, the Bait al-Hikma functioned as the ultimate centre of translation and dissemination of knowledge in the empire. Prominent scholars and men of intellect often met there to acquire knowledge and discuss academic matters. It was established by Caliph Harun al-Rashid (763 – 809) and flourished from the 9th to 13th centuries. During the Golden Age of Islam, the House of Wisdom became an unrivalled centre for research and education, concentrating on various fields such as medicine, humanities, geography, mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and zoology.

It is an undeniable fact that the House of Wisdom was an extremely prestigious institution for lovers of knowledge and the sciences who lived during that era. Scholars and researchers who served in this institution were highly distinguished and learned. As such, to be placed in charge of such an esteemed institution was a highly honourable privilege reserved only for the crème de la crème of the era, of which Hunayn happens to be one of them.

Modern-day House of Wisdom (Bait al-Hikma) in Baghdad, Iraq - a research centre named after the Abbasid era Bait al-Hikma

As you’ve read in the preceding part of this article, Hunayn was appointed to be in charge of the Bait al-Hikma in 830, when Caliph Al-Ma’mun found out about his extraordinary talent and skills in translating complex Greek medical manuscripts into Arabic. Since then, Hunayn had been actively involved in translating numerous Greek works into Syriac and Arabic. He was frequently assisted by his son, Ishaq ibn Hunayn and his nephew, Hubaysh ibn al-Hasan.

The methods that Hunayn applied in translating Greek works into Syriac and Arabic were unique and distinct from other contemporary translators of his time. While the trend of the era was to translate foreign academic works into Arabic word by word, Hunayn strongly objected to this method. He frequently applied a different method in translating Greek academic works, in which his first step was to gather various manuscripts revolving around a particular subject. His next step was to compare these manuscripts to each other so as to obtain the actual meaning of the subject and to reconstruct the original text according to it. Lastly, he would rewrite the reconstructed original text in Syriac or Arabic, thus producing a precise translation which was, at the same time, not taken exactly word by word from the original manuscripts. Such translated works were considered to have the finest quality, and this is proven by the fact that Hunayn was paid in gold according to their weight.

Hunayn, although being a Nestorian Christian himself, was placed in charge of a predominantly Muslim institute of knowledge and had many Muslim scholars and students working under him. Many of his translations were pivotal in providing the medieval Muslim world with access to the most important Greek medical texts. It was thus the works and efforts of a prominent Nestorian Christian physician that have laid the vital foundations for the expansion and development of medicine in the Muslim world in subsequent centuries – something that may be unknown to many.

A depiction of the great Greek physician, Galen at work

One of the most prominent Greek physicians whose works were largely translated into Arabic by Hunayn was Galen (129 – 217). During his lifetime, Hunayn had translated numerous medical treatises written by Galen, of which some of them include:

1) On the Usefulness of the Parts
Latin (L): De usu partium
Arabic (A): Kitab fi manafi ‘al-a’da

2) On Bones for Beginners
L: De ossibus ad tirones
A: Maqalat fi al-‘izam lil-muta’allimin

3) On the Dissection (Anatomy) of Muscles
L: De musculorum dissectione
A: Maqalat fi tashrih al-‘adal

4) On the Dissection (Anatomy) of Veins and Arteries
L: De venarum arteriumque dissectione

5) On the Dissection (Anatomy) of Nerves
L: De nervorum dissectione

6) On the Properties of Foodstuffs
L: De alimentorum facultatibus
A: Kitab al-aghdhiya

7) On Pulses for Beginners
L: De pulsibus ad tirones

8) On the Elements According to Hippocrates
L: De elementis secundum Hippocratem

A piece of text from 'On the Usefulness of the Parts' (De Usu Partium) by Galen

Besides Galen’s works, Hunayn had also successfully translated many treatises and works written by Hippocrates (ca. 460 BC – ca. 370 BC), who is also commonly known as the “Father of Medicine.” Among these works are:

1) On Airs, Waters and Places
L: De aere, aquis et locis

2) The Hippocratic Oath

3) The Prognostics
L: Prognostica
A: Kitab taqdimat al-ma’rifah

4) The Aphorisms

5) On the Nature of Man
L: De natura hominis
A: Kitab buqrat fi tabi’at al-insan

Hippocrates (ca. 460 BC - ca. 370 BC), The Father of Medicine

In addition to translating medical treatises written by Galen and Hippocrates, Hunayn had also translated several works by another famous Greek physician, Dioscorides (ca. 40 – 90). An example is a pharmacological treatise entitled ‘On Medical Materials’, also known in Latin as De materia medica and in Arabic as Kitab al-hasha’ish. On top of that, Hunayn translated several important works by Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC), for example:

1) Categories
L: Caterigoriae
A: Maqulas

2) Physics
L: Physica
A: Tabi’iyat

3) Great Ethics
L: Magna Moralia
A: Khulqiyat

Not only did Hunayn render into Arabic many original Greek works written by the aforementioned Greek physicians, he also translated several commentaries written on those works, especially those by Greek physicians Oribasius (320 – 400) and Paul of Aeginata (ca. 625 – ca. 690).

While being an active translator of Greek medical treatises, Hunayn was also a prolific writer who produced many original works of his own. One of his most well-known works is known as ‘Questions on Medicine for Beginners’, also known by its Arabic name of Kitab al-Masa’il fi at-tibb li-l-muta ‘allimin. This work served as an essential guide for medical students of that time to become familiarized with the basics in medicine before progressing further in their studies. In fact, it was later absorbed into medieval European medicine, in which it became an important and influential reference for many physicians there.

Despite being what we would normally call a “general practitioner” or GP, Hunayn did specialize in a particular field of medicine, that is in the field of ophthalmology (study of the eye). This is proven by the fact that he penned various original works dealing with the anatomy (structure), physiology (function) and pathology (diseases) of the eye. One such work was known as ‘The Ten Treatises on the Eye’ (Al-‘ashr maqalat fil-‘ain), in which Hunayn wrote in detail about the eye’s anatomy, as well as various diseases affecting the eye and their signs and symptoms, ranging from cysts and tumours to corneal ulcers and cataracts. He also discussed in this work several surgical procedures used in treating such conditions. This work is, in fact, widely accepted as the first systematic textbook on ophthalmology ever written. Its comprehensiveness rendered it as one of the main textbooks used in Abbasid medical schools during the era, besides being commonly consulted and quoted by European ophthalmologists in later centuries.

Another work on ophthalmology penned by Hunayn was ‘The Book of the Questions on the Eye’ (Kitab al-masa’il fi-l-‘ain). This book was written in the form of questions and answers and its contents were extracted from the first six treatises of ‘The Ten Treatises on the Eye.’

One of the earliest known detailed description of the eye written by Hunayn

It is incomplete to say that Hunayn was only a great physician who translated and wrote many works and treatises on medicine, for he was also actively involved in writing and translating literature pertaining to the Nestorian Christian faith. In the area of religion, Hunayn is best known for being involved in translating the Old Testament of the Greek Septuagint Bible into Arabic. In fact, a famous Arab Muslim historian by the name of Al-Masudi (896 – 956) once wrote that Hunayn’s Arabic version of the Old Testament was translated directly from the Greek Septuagint Bible and that many considered this Arabic version to be the best translation of it.

Furthermore, Hunayn wrote some materials and letters pertaining to the Nestorian Christian faith which were either publicly circulated or sent to specific individuals during that time. His religious writings comprised a blend of both biblical and philosophical elements. Hunayn once wrote a book entitled ‘How to Grasp Religion’, in which he discussed the truths of religion, the occurrence of miracles, the inability of humans to explain certain phenomena and other matters pertaining to religion.

An Arabic Bible

Other examples of Christian works by Hunayn include one in which he explained the evidences for the existence of the one true God and another one in which he discussed the ways to discern the true religion. The latter work, entitled ‘On How to Discern the Truth of Religion’ (Maqalat fi kayfiyat idrak haqiqat al-diyana) explains various ways to identify the true religion and differentiate it from other religions. As such, Hunayn expounded that Christianity corresponded with the reasons for which the truth has been accepted over falsehood.

Pertaining to Hunayn’s active involvement in producing Christian-related materials, there is one incident which is worth mentioning here. This incident involves an exchange of letters between Hunayn and a Muslim astronomer in the caliph’s court, Ali ibn Yahya al-Munajjim. In this incident, Al-Munajjim first wrote a letter to Hunayn around the year 855, presenting arguments to prove that God had indeed sent Muhammad as a prophet to the world. Subsequently, Al-Munajjim asserted in his letter that as a reasonable and learned man, Hunayn should convert to Islam. Hunayn replied this letter, in which he pointed out the astronomer’s fallacies in presenting such arguments while putting forward his own reasons as to why Christianity should be considered the true religion.

Progress in the field of medicine during the Golden Age of Islam had been made possible with the influx of Greek and Roman medical literature into the Abbasid Empire in the form of Arabic translations. Hence, Hunayn’s excellent command of Greek, Arabic and Syriac, combined with his exceptional skills in translating and synthesizing complex academic works, provided the medieval Islamic world with easy access to the finest medical knowledge of the era. In so doing, Hunayn had effectively laid the strong foundations for medicine to develop further in the Islamic world. Nevertheless, it is indeed surprising and amazing to know that it was actually a Nestorian Christian who laid these vital foundations in medieval Islamic medicine.

In the final part of this article, I will be covering on a special chapter taken from the story of the life of Hunayn ibn Ishaq. Click on the link to find out what I mean!

The Great Christian Physician of Islam’s Golden Age (Part 3)

In the previous part of this article, I have covered much on the works translated and written by Hunayn ibn Ishaq during his lifetime, both in the fields of science and religion. As I’ve mentioned in the previous part of this article, I will now be covering on a special chapter taken from the story of the life of Hunayn ibn Ishaq, the great physician of the Golden Age of Islam.

In mentioning this special chapter, I’m actually referring to a special incident that occurred at a certain point in Hunayn’s life. Information about this incident is sourced from a biography of Hunayn found in a work entitled ‘Lives of the Physicians’ (Uyun al-anba’ fi tabaqat al-atibba) by Ibn Abi Usaibi’a (1203 – 1270), an Arab physician and historian from Damascus. This biography was written in the first person point of view, that is, from Hunayn’s own perspective. Nevertheless, some modern-day scholars doubt the authenticity of this source due to the fact that conversations which Hunayn could not have possibly overheard were also written down in it. Hence, such scholars assert that it was probably one of Hunayn’s students who wrote it in defense of his teacher.

Regardless of whether this biography was actually authored by Hunayn himself or one of his students, it still remains a rather interesting account for us to consider. Due to copyright reasons, I’m unable to display the full text of this source in this article. However, for those of you who are interested to read the full text, click here to read it. For the rest of this article, I will only provide you with a summary of the narration found in the actual text.

Culture and life during the era of the Abbasid Caliphate

It all began when utter jealousy aroused in the hearts of some of Hunayn’s family members, colleagues and students, who were envious of his great learning and excellent capabilities in translating works as well as in practicing medicine. They resented the fact that Hunayn was revered in the Abbasid Caliphate as an extraordinary translator and a great physician who was a mark above many of his contemporaries. In spite of all the kindness, assistance and good treatment that he had offered to them, they mistreated him and made life difficult for him in every way possible.

In all the days of his misery and anguish, Hunayn never voiced his frustrations out to anyone else. He kept it all to himself, feeling very upset and looking unto Almighty God to judge between him and them. He neither slandered nor accused his adversaries, but instead kept on praising them in public. Whenever he was told that his adversaries were insulting him, he merely shrugged off such notions and said that he could not imagine them insulting him, since he and they were all tied by a similar birthplace, faith and profession. (Most of his adversaries who disliked him were Nestorian Christians from Al-Hira themselves.)

Many a times did other physicians come to him in their times of need, particularly when they needed his help to confirm diagnoses and prescribe medicines in difficult cases. Ironically, these physicians who required him the most in their times of need were, at the same time, his most malicious enemies. Hunayn never voiced out his anguish to them, but kept quiet all the time and willingly helped them as they requested, leaving it to God to judge between him and them. There were in total 56 Nestorian Christian physicians in the service of the caliph who wielded much influence in the caliph’s court, all of whom resented Hunayn for who he was.

A depiction of an Abbasid caliph's court

Finally, Hunayn’s sufferings and misery culminated in perhaps the most terrible experience in his entire lifetime. This was brought about by a court physician who was a Nestorian Christian just like Hunayn himself. He was none other than Bukhtishu ibn Jibril, who had plotted against Hunayn to trap him in the presence of the caliph.

In this plot, Bukhtishu had obtained a beautiful icon magnificently portraying Mary, Mother of Jesus holding the infant Jesus in her lap, being surrounded by angels. Bukhtishu arranged for the icon to be brought into the court of Caliph Al-Mutawakkil, where he then received it and presented it to the caliph, who was impressed with it. Bukhtishu then kissed the icon and, after explaining to the caliph that the former was obliged to kiss it as a Christian, started accusing Hunayn of being an atheist who had no respect for the icon, but would rather spit on it upon seeing it. Caliph Al-Mutawakkil subsequently agreed to summon Hunayn at a later time suggested by Bukhtishu in order to investigate the truth behind this accusation.

An artist's impression of a surgery carried out in medieval Islamic times

After leaving the caliph’s presence, Bukhtishu went to meet Hunayn with the intention of tricking him to spit on the icon that had just been presented to the caliph. The wicked physician told a different story altogether to Hunayn.

Bukhtishu told Hunayn that someone else had presented such an icon to the caliph, and that the caliph was most impressed with it. When asked of his opinion on the icon, Bukhtishu replied the caliph by saying that it meant nothing to him and that it was just an ordinary picture. Upon hearing such a reply, the caliph asked Bukhtishu to prove his words by spitting on the icon. Bukhtishu did as what the caliph said, spitting on the icon in front of the caliph. The physician asserted that he had done so in front of the caliph in order to prevent the latter from making use of the icon to provoke and humiliate other Christians.

In telling this false story to Hunayn, Bukhtishu advised him to do as what he “had done” in front of the caliph if the caliph were to ask the same questions to Hunayn. Bukhtishu also said that he had advised some of their friends to do the same if the caliph were to ask those questions to them.

Of course, not knowing the truth behind this matter, Hunayn fell into the wicked physician’s trap. Shortly after Bukhtishu left, Hunayn was summoned to the caliph’s court and was shown the icon. Caliph Al-Mutawakkil asked for Hunayn’s opinions pertaining to the icon. The great physician did as what he was told by Bukhtishu, saying that the icon meant nothing special and then spat on it. Immediately after doing that, Caliph Al-Mutawakkil ordered Hunayn to be thrown into prison.

A depiction of Virgin Mary and the infant Jesus in her lap

(NOT THE ONE MENTIONED IN THE STORY)

The caliph then summoned Mar Theodosius I (in office 853 – 858), the catholicos or the head of the Nestorian Christian church in Baghdad at that time. When he saw the icon of Mary and the infant Jesus in the court of the caliph, Mar Theodosius I requested the caliph to present it to him as a gift. After consenting to the request, the caliph enquired the catholicos as to how someone who has spat on the icon should be dealt with. The catholicos replied that if the offender was a Muslim, then he should merely be reprimanded for it so that he would not repeat the offense. However, if the offender was a Christian, which would be unlikely in any case since only an absolutely ignorant Christian would commit such an act, he should be severely condemned and ostracized by his fellow Christians until he repents. After repenting, he should observe all prayers and fasts, besides distributing a portion of his riches in alms before he could be forgiven.

Once Mar Theodosius I left, Caliph Al-Mutawakkil ordered Hunayn to be brought before him. Hunayn was then given a hundred whippings before the caliph ordered for the great physician to be imprisoned and tortured. Moreover, the caliph sent men to destroy Hunayn’s houses and confiscate all his belongings.

A depiction of physicians and drugs used during medieval Islamic times

Hunayn’s torment under the hands of the caliph and his men lasted for a bitter six months. After four months of imprisonment, Caliph Al-Mutawakkil fell very ill up to the point when all his physicians gave up any hope of recovery. Hunayn’s adversaries, who were all the other court physicians, attended to the caliph everyday, persuading him from day to day to eliminate Hunayn. At last, on one day, the caliph bowed down to their persistent pressures and agreed to condemn Hunayn to death the next morning.

The night before the execution, a court official came to Hunayn to inform him of his predicament. The great physician was so distressed that he prayed to God the whole night for deliverance from his adversaries, knowing that he was innocent and had been wronged by Bukhtishu and his accomplices.

The next morning, when a eunuch came to open the door of Hunayn’s prison earlier than usual, Hunayn was devastated, thinking that the caliph was going to proceed with the execution after all. He begged God even more earnestly for mercy and deliverance. The great physician was then tidied up and dressed properly before being taken to the caliph’s court. By the time he arrived at the court, all his adversaries and the other officials were already gathered there, waiting for the execution. The caliph invited Hunayn to sit directly in front of him before addressing the entire audience.

Much to the surprise of Hunayn and all present there, Caliph Al-Mutawakkil announced that he had pardoned the great physician and had thus released him from all charges. The caliph subsequently requested Hunayn to examine him and prescribe the suitable medications for his condition. Ignoring all that the other wicked physicians were saying to him, the caliph followed Hunayn’s prescription and took the drug without further ado.

Cassia pods (left) and exudate from the manna ash bark (right) - medicines prescribed by Hunayn to Caliph Al-Mutawakkil

Caliph Al-Mutawakkil then explained to all who were present in the court as to why he had pardoned Hunayn, despite vowing on the day before to execute the great physician. Apparently, the caliph had a most amazing dream the night before. In his dream, the Lord Jesus Christ had appeared to him with Hunayn, commanding him to pardon Hunayn and to take the great physician’s prescription in order to get well. When he woke up in the morning, he was amazed at the power of Hunayn’s intercessor, at the same time mulling over Hunayn’s sufferings and torment under his hands.

After explaining all these, the caliph ordered all the wicked physicians who opposed Hunayn to bring ten thousand dirhams each to the court, or else they would be executed. The caliph added another ten thousand dirhams from his own treasury to the total that has been collected from all the wicked physicians and gave all the money to Hunayn. The caliph also ordered renovation works on three of his personal residences and handed them over to the great physician. All that Hunayn needed, such as utensils, furniture and books, were supplied to him by the caliph.

A dirham coin from the Abbasid era

Besides obtaining all these riches from the caliph, Hunayn also obtained substantial amounts of money as compensation for his time in prison, as well as an enormous monthly salary. All that Hunayn had lost before this were restored to him a hundredfold. He was subsequently placed in a very high position – higher than all his allies and adversaries. Despite all that he had gone through, Hunayn never held any grudges against his adversaries, but instead willingly helped them whenever they sought his assistance in difficult matters.

All in all, it is undoubtedly true that the Golden Age of Islam of the medieval Abbasid Caliphate marked the era when the Islamic World was at its peak in terms of culture, civilization, scientific advancements and propagation of knowledge. It is also undoubtedly true that, as the name suggests, the Golden Age of Islam witnessed the contributions of numerous Muslim scholars, scientists, philosophers and artists in developing the predominantly Islamic society of the Abbasid Caliphate.

Nonetheless, it is worth noting as well that a significant body of Nestorian Christian scholars, philosophers, scientists and physicians has made invaluable contributions in the Abbasid Caliphate, thus enabling the Golden Age of Islam to flourish even further – a fact that many don’t actually know. Of course, amongst these prominent Nestorian Christians was Abu Zayd Hunayn ibn Ishaq al-Ibadi.

A Nestorian Christian church in modern-day Baghdad, Iraq