Sisters of the Modern Dynasty – the Soong Sisters (Part 1)

There is a common adage in China that remains to this day, “One loved money, one loved power, and one loved the country” (一个爱钱，一个爱权，一个爱国). This notable saying, popularized by none other than Chairman Mao himself, pays homage not to any man, but to three of the most powerful and influential women in Chinese history, together known as the Soong Sisters (宋家姐妹, Sòngjiā Jiĕmèi).

That three women should be accorded such respect and admiration is indeed a very uncommon occurrence, especially in a society that has been traditionally male-dominant such as China. Nonetheless, it was these three women who rose to such prominence and influence not only through their respective husbands, but in their very own rights as well, so much so that their very lives shaped much of modern China and Taiwan throughout much of the 20^th century.

The Soong Sisters were born to the prominent American-educated Chinese Methodist missionary-cum-revolutionist Charlie Soong (宋嘉树, Sòng Jiāshù) (1863 – 1918), also known by his courtesy name Song Yaoru (宋耀如, Sòng Yàorú), who was then based in Shanghai (上海, Shànghăi). Their mother was Ni Guizhen (倪桂珍, Ní Guìzhēn) (1869 – 1931), a descendant of the renowned Ming Dynasty Chinese Catholic scholar Xu Guangqi (徐光启, Xú Guāngqĭ) (1562 – 1633), who is commonly hailed as one of the “Three Pillars of Chinese Catholicism.” Besides the three sisters, Charlie and Ni also had three other sons, one of whom was T.V. Soong (宋子文, Sòng Zĭwén) (1891 – 1971), an influential businessman and one of the former Premiers of the Republic of China.

 Charlie Soong (宋嘉树, Sòng Jiāshù) (1863 – 1918)

Before proceeding further in this article, let me introduce to you the three sisters themselves. They are none other than (in birth order):

1.      Soong Ai-ling (宋霭龄, Sòng Àilíng) (1888 – 1973), christened Nancy Soong

2.      Soong Ching-ling (宋庆龄, Sòng Qìnglíng) (1893 – 1981), popularly known as Madame Sun

3.      Soong May-ling (宋美龄, Sòng Mĕilíng) (1898 – 2003), popularly known as Madame Chiang

The Soong Sisters. From left: May-ling, Ai-ling and Ching-ling

The Soong sisters led very unique lives in the sense that not only did they marry influential husbands and become indispensable driving forces behind China and Taiwan’s modern destinies, they also had the opportunity to receive sound American education – a rare privilege for even many American girls at that time, let alone three young Chinese girls from an impoverished land. With the incessant uprisings against the declining Qing Dynasty and continued political instability throughout China, Charlie Soong foresaw the need to send his children overseas for their safety as well as to allow them to obtain a good education for a brighter future. The eldest of the three, Soong Ai-ling, was thus sent to America to pursue further education at the ripe age of 16, being enrolled in Wesleyan College in Macon, Georgia, upon the recommendation of one of Charlie’s close missionary associates. She arrived in America in 1904, and four years later, in the fall of 1908, she was joined by her two sisters.

Their college years in Georgia as a whole proved to be a remarkable turning point in their lives. It was during these years that they were exposed to many Western ideas regarding education, politics, religion, literature and society, besides acquiring a fluent command of English with a distinctly Georgian accent. In fact, their command of English was so exceptional that the youngest of the sisters, Soong May-ling, once noted that she had to relearn all the Chinese that she had forgotten during her years in America, stating that “the only thing oriental about me is my face.” As a result of their extensive foreign education and exposure, the Soong Sisters came back to China, in 1909, 1913 and 1917 respectively, with refreshed outlooks and progressive ideas for China’s post-Qing Dynasty future.

Wesleyan College, Macon, Georgia - the alma mater of the Soong Sisters

Having lived in America for so long since her teenage years, Ai-ling initially faced problems adjusting to the local culture upon returning to Shanghai, but she was soon able to overcome them and became actively engaged in charity activities with her mother. Nevertheless, unlike her youngest sister, Ai-ling still retained an excellent fluency in her Shanghainese dialect. Through her father’s networks, Ai-ling was able to secure a job as secretary to the renowned Chinese revolutionist and later founder of the Republic of China, Dr Sun Yat-sen (孙中山, Sūn Zhōngshān) (1866 – 1925), who was also one of his father’s good friends. In 1913, when Dr Sun and the Soong family were seeking refuge in Japan after a failed revolution against General Yuan Shikai (袁世凯, Yuán Shìkăi) (1859 – 1916), Ai-ling met and subsequently married Dr H. H. Kung (孔祥熙, Kŏng Xiángxī) (1881 – 1967), after which she left her job and started teaching English to children. Dr Kung was from one of the richest families in China, was also an American graduate himself, and was at that time working with the Chinese Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) in Japan. He later went on to become a prominent and wealthy banker and politician, and the Republic of China’s Minister of Finance under the Kuomintang (国民党, Guómíndăng) government.

 Dr H.H. Kung (孔祥熙, Kŏng Xiángxī) (1881 – 1967)

Ching-ling graduated and returned in 1913, and when her elder sister left her job as secretary to Dr Sun, she took over the job the following year. Ching-ling was an ardent supporter of Dr Sun’s political cause. She then married him in 1915 in Japan, much against her parents’ wishes due to the fact that Dr Sun was 27 years her senior. May-ling, who returned in 1917, was so adapted to American life that she found returning to impoverished China and re-adapting to the traditional lifestyle of her native homeland a great chore. Regardless, since she returned to Shanghai, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek (蒋介石, Jiăng Jièshí) (1887 – 1975), who was a prominent leader of the Kuomintang and a close ally of Dr Sun, incessantly pursued her and sought her hand in marriage, more for political reasons than true love, since her family had extensive connections both in China and America. Because of the fact that General Chiang was 11 years her senior, already married, and a Buddhist, May-ling’s mother opposed any matrimonial alliance between the two, but she finally agreed after he was able to present proof of his divorce and converted to Methodist Christianity. The marriage thus took place in Shanghai in 1927.

 Dr Sun Yat-sen (孙中山, Sūn Zhōngshān) (1866 – 1925)

If the respective marriages of the three sisters caused their drifting apart from one another, the death of Dr Sun in 1925 and the consequent break in the Kuomintang following internal strife proved to further aggravate this. While Dr Sun’s leadership over the Kuomintang generally glued all its top leaders and members under a common agreed goal, his death consequently meant the breaking of the party into left and right wings, each accusing the other of betraying Dr Sun’s original principles and ideals, and each claiming the right of succeeding the leadership of the party. General Chiang, who led the right wing, emerged victorious and subsequently helmed the party’s top leadership, while the left wing was purged into oblivion under the general’s orders. Ai-ling and May-ling supported General Chiang’s right-wing struggles, seeing it as the better alternative for China’s future, but Ching-ling, who felt that his ideals were a stark betrayal of her husband’s founding principles, associated herself with the left-wing instead.

General Chiang Kai-shek (蒋介石, Jiăng Jièshí) (1887 – 1975)

(Continued in next part)

Sisters of the Modern Dynasty – the Soong Sisters (Part 2)

The Soong Sisters with their mother, Madam Ni Guizhen (倪桂珍, Ní Guìzhēn) (1869 – 1931)

(Continued from previous part)

Later life of Soong Ai-ling

Ai-ling was more adept in business and financial matters compared to politics. She stayed in Shanghai with her husband, Dr Kung, often keeping a low profile and preferring to be engaged in business matters rather than politics. Together with her husband, they rapidly expanded their businesses throughout China, including Hong Kong. In spite of her wealth, she was a passionate philanthropist who devoted much of her time and energy into social works involving children, orphans, refugees and wounded soldiers. She donated much to the cause of General Chiang’s Nationalist (Kuomintang) army, in terms of financial support, supplies and military equipment. In 1947, shortly after the end of the Second World War, Ai-ling migrated permanently to the United States with her husband, moving all her family’s wealth along with her. She continued playing an active role in supporting General Chiang’s regime by contributing her energy and influence in promoting public relations between the United States and the Republic of China (Taiwan) right up to her death in 1973 in New York.

 Ai-ling and her husband, Dr Kung

Later life of Soong Ching-ling

While Ai-ling played a more secretive but undoubtedly significant role in Chinese politics and economy, her two sisters were more open in their political affiliations and struggles for a better China. Standing on two opposite sides of the divide, Ching-ling associated herself with left-wing leaders of the Kuomintang, whom she felt were still faithful to her husband’s (Dr Sun’s) original principles and struggles. It was these left-wing leaders who later came about in establishing the Chinese Communist Party. May-ling, however, stood by her husband’s (General Chiang’s) right-wing Nationalist principles, which in the due course of China’s history won the battle but lost the war.

 Ching-ling and her husband, Dr Sun

Ching-ling was an ardent campaigner of women’s rights. Taking swipes at China’s traditionally male-chauvinistic society and culture in many of her speeches, she argued that for China to experience a revolution for the better, women had to break out of their traditional roles of merely being “capable mothers and obedient wives” and had to start playing more major roles in politics and society. She argued that gender equality was as important as the equality of classes if China were to see progress.

Ching-ling’s close association with the leftists in the Kuomintang meant that when General Chiang launched a brutal purge of the leftists in 1927, she was forced to exile herself to Moscow, then part of the Communist-controlled Soviet Union. She returned briefly in 1929 when Dr Sun’s body was transferred from a temporary site in Beijing to a mausoleum newly-built by the Kuomintang in Nanjing, thereafter leaving again until 1931, when her mother passed away. She was responsible for establishing the China Defense League (保卫中国同盟, Băowèi Zhōngguó Tóngméng) in 1939, an organization that primarily functioned to raise funds and acquire supplies for the Chinese Communist armies fighting against both the Japanese and Nationalist armies circa World War II.

Ching-ling with children in the China Welfare Institute, a welfare organization that developed from the China Defense League

As the Chinese Civil War raged, Ching-ling broke away permanently from her family and openly supported the Chinese Communist army. Her undivided support and assistance for the Communists meant that her political prominence skyrocketed in the aftermath of the war, in which the Communists emerged victorious and subsequently established the People’s Republic of China in 1949. She held many important positions in the newly-established Communist government, who viewed her as a link between Dr Sun’s ideals and the principles of Chinese communism. She was made one of the six vice-chairmen of the Central People’s Government Council, and was later elected to become a Vice-Chairperson of the People’s Republic of China, making her perhaps the most powerful woman in the modern history of China.

The 10-year Cultural Revolution that lasted from 1966 to 1976 saw Ching-ling being criticized heavily and threatened, so much so that she had to be accorded special protection under Chairman Mao’s approval. After the Cultural Revolution, she greatly reduced her number of public appearances, although she continued to write actively on women and children’s rights in the press. Shortly before her death in 1981, Ching-ling was made the Honorary President of the People’s Republic of China, the only person to have ever held this title until today.

Ching-ling with Chairman Mao and other leaders from the Chinese Communist Party

 Later life of Soong May-ling

Whereas Ching-ling rose to political stardom in the Communist-controlled People’s Republic of China based in Beijing, May-ling became her direct counterpart in the Nationalist-controlled Republic of China based in Taipei. May-ling took up an active role in setting up schools and running welfare programs for the orphans of fallen Nationalist soldiers, providing them proper homes and education. She was also an active campaigner for foreign funds and support, both for the sake of her welfare programs and the Nationalist army as a whole.

May-ling’s campaigns brought her all over the world with her husband, General Chiang, especially to the United States. Her eloquence and fluency in the English language made her just the right person to play the role of interpreter and sometimes mouthpiece for General Chiang. Her rallies in the United States frequently drew large crowds, and she was a highly popular figure who succeeded in raising much awareness in the Western world for the Nationalists’ cause. In every way, the Americans viewed her as the embodiment of a democratic China they hoped to see.

 May-ling and General Chiang sharing a light moment with General Joseph Stilwell

Despite all international support for the Nationalists, rampant corruption and the loss of popular support for the Nationalists back home ultimately resulted in the defeat of the Nationalist army in the Chinese Civil War and the consequent collapse of General Chiang’s regime. When General Chiang moved his regime to Taiwan and established the Republic of China on the island in 1949, May-ling continued to be an iconic figure for both the Nationalists and the Western world, holding various positions in internationally recognized organizations.

May-ling addressing the American public via radio broadcast, thanking the Americans for their continued support towards the Kuomintang (Nationalist) cause

May-ling held no official positions in the Republic of China’s government, but her political influence remained strong right up to the death of her husband in 1975. Her relationship with Chiang Ching-kuo (蒋经国, Jiăng Jīngguó) (1910 – 1988), General Chiang’s son from an earlier marriage, proved to be rocky, and when he succeeded power after his father’s death in 1975, May-ling emigrated to New York. She returned to Taiwan after Ching-kuo’s death in 1988, at a time when a successor to the Kuomintang’s presidency was to be elected. As the widow of General Chiang and perhaps the most senior surviving figure of the Kuomintang at that time, May-ling’s political influence and support remained very strong even after her long absence from Taiwan.

May-ling’s initial intention was to spend the rest of her life in Taiwan, but mounting controversy against her and the rapidly changing local political landscape forced her to make a heavy decision to return to New York. Criticisms and verbal attacks mounted against her with regards to her husband’s past dictatorial rule and her personal influence in Taiwanese politics were increasing across the mass media. Additionally, although she was on good terms with President Lee Teng-hui (李登辉, Lĭ Dēnghuī) who succeeded the Kuomintang and Taiwanese presidency, her disliking for his “Taiwanization” policies ultimately pushed her to make the decision to leave. Such “Taiwanization” policies include, among others, favouring native Taiwanese over mainland-born Chinese in key governmental positions and defining a set of Taiwanese customs and culture that is separate from mainstream Chinese culture.

President Lee Teng-hui (李登辉, Lĭ Dēnghuī), former President of the Republic of China (Taiwan)

May-ling’s return to the United States in 1991 marked the end of the Chiang family’s influence in Taiwanese politics. In the years that followed, many legacies of the Chiang family were dismantled, criticisms against the Chiang family’s past rule and May-ling’s political influence were increased, and idolization of General Chiang was severely discouraged. Ironically, it was at that time as well when the Chiang family’s role in shaping modern China was actively preserved and re-appreciated by the Communist government in Beijing. This was probably due to the fact that the Chiang family, including May-ling herself, strongly opposed any movement to seek independence for Taiwan, as opposed to President Lee Teng-hui’s policies that favoured a Republic of China (Taiwan) independent of Beijing’s control.

In 1994, May-ling made what would be her last visit to Taiwan. Even at the age of 97, she became a huge subject of controversy, and her visit did nothing to improve that. In the following year, a reception held by the U.S. Congress in her honour to mark the 50^th anniversary of the end of the Second World War served to further fuel controversy and strain Washington’s ties with both Beijing and Taipei, at a time when issues such as Taiwan’s independence and Beijing’s abuse of human rights were becoming more heightened.

Members of the U.S. Senate having a light moment with the elderly Madam Soong May-ling in 1995

May-ling passed away in 2003 at the ripe old age of 105, her life having extended into three centuries, being the longest and, unsurprisingly, most controversial among the three sisters.

“One loved money, one loved power, and one loved the country” (一个爱钱，一个爱权，一个爱国, yīgè ài qián, yīgè ài quán, yīgè ài guó). Such is the saying by Chairman Mao that refers to Ai-ling, May-ling and Ching-ling, in that order. Adept in business over politics, Ai-ling is dubbed the one who loved money. Being highly influential in both China and abroad, and having been mired in insurmountable controversies in much of her later life, May-ling is dubbed the one who loved power. Being highly supportive of the Chinese Communist regime and its struggles, and wielding much influence in it, Ching-ling is dubbed the one who loved the country i.e. the People’s Republic of China. Had the saying come from General Chiang instead, might it apply to Ai-ling, Ching-ling and May-ling, in that exact order, instead?

Two thing’s for sure. Firstly, while Ai-ling preferred her businesses over dabbling in politics, both Ching-ling and May-ling were direct counterparts to each other, separated by the Taiwan Straits and a deep political chasm between the Nationalists and Communists. And secondly, if ever there was a woman (or women) who could match Empress Wu Zetian (武则天, Wŭ Zétiān) (624 – 705) in political might and bureaucratic influence throughout China’s long history, she (or they) would undoubtedly be of the Soong Sisters.

When a ‘Chinese God’ Died – Mao Zedong and the Cultural Revolution (Part 1a)

“Oh, my darling! Look at you! What in the name of heavens has happened to you?!” Jiang Qing (江青, Jiāng Qīng) exclaimed as she rushed into Building 202 of Zhongnanhai (中南海, Zhōngnánhǎi), the official residence of the great Chairman of the People’s Republic of China. In an instant, her arms were swung around the great Chairman and her husband, dropping as much tears as she could on the deplorable mass that was his body. Indeed, the once strong body that commanded an entire army against the mighty Nationalist forces of General Chiang Kai-shek (蒋介石, Jiǎng Jièshí) now laid in such a piteous state on the bed in the middle of the room.

General Chiang Kai-shek (蒋介石) (left) and the "Great Chairman" (right)

The afternoon sun of September 5 1976 shone through the windows of the room as the First Lady looked at the feeble form of the fearsome man that held the most populous nation in the world under his very hands. She just could not believe her eyes anymore. In every corner of the Middle Kingdom (which, of course, is no longer a kingdom), people were worshipping the great Chairman, singing hymns of praises to him and praying to him for health and safety. And there lies that very same man on the bed, whose gospel-like sayings and writings are treated with much reverence and even quoted in the people’s everyday lives! Oh, if people pray to you for health, then why do you lie in such a deplorably frail state right before my eyes, she thought to herself.

“I rushed back right away from my trip when that, erm, what was that fellow’s name again, erm, oh yeah! when that Hua Guofeng (华国锋, Huá Guófēng) called me and told me about your state this morning.” She tried her best to hide her contempt for the young and unpopular leader, not wanting her personal emotions to hurt the great Chairman’s sentiments and possibly aggravate his already pitiable condition.

 Hua Guofeng (华国锋) waving to the masses

Upon uttering the name, her attention drifted momentarily elsewhere, as she stared blankly at the side of the bed. No doubt, her husband may have greatly favoured the young and seemingly unknown leader to succeed his helm of power when the time came for the great Chairman to say the inevitable goodbye. Nonetheless, although she respected the fact that her god-like husband had made many perfect god-like decisions for the betterment of the nation, she strongly felt that this time, he had clearly made a grave mistake. How can such an incapable, inexperienced and unknown leader like Hua Guofeng be entrusted with the fate of a socialist nation that her husband had tried so hard to develop in the entire course of his life? “And moreover, who on earth is this pesky, puny little Hua Guofeng to lord his power over the likes of ME?!” a voice rang throughout her mind.

Then her mind drifted off to a particular note that the great Chairman had apparently written to Hua Guofeng just a few months ago, on April 30. She vividly recalled the short note that was scrawled by the Chairman himself in his almost illegible writing, which was then passed to his assistants to be handed over to Hua. Indeed, since the doctors told her that her husband was suffering from Lou Gehrig’s disease (a disease that causes the degeneration of motor neurons, muscle weakness and subsequently loss of control over voluntary movement), his writing and speech had never been the same. Hardly anyone could understand his progressively slurring speech and worsening handwriting, save for his personal nurse Zhang Yufeng.

Nonetheless, the memory of that particular note, which clearly stirred the anger of the beast within her heart, could never fade from her mind’s eye. She could undoubtedly recall the short but meaningful message that was scrawled upon it by the great Chairman:

“With you in charge, I am at ease.”

(“你办事，我放心。”)

In charge of what? China’s future? The government conference that was held the following week after the note was written? The meeting with the Prime Minister of New Zealand, Robert Muldoon? (Prime Minister Robert Muldoon was in China on a state visit around the time the note was written.) Or crushing the great Chairman’s political rival, Deng Xiaoping (邓小平, Dèng Xiǎopíng)? In any way, why would the great Chairman entrust ANYTHING at all to that USELESS Hua Guofeng?

 The great Chairman's almost illegible scrawl saying "With you in charge, I am at ease." (“你办事，我放心。”)

“I feel so lonely and weak now.” The great Chairman’s feeble voice broke the gloomy silence of the room and brought Jiang Qing back to reality. “This year has been the loneliest for me in my entire lifetime. Most of the visitors I get nowadays are those scary doctors and nurses that keep on staring at me with gloomy faces that seem to tell me as if I don’t have much time left. Even this year’s New Year (Chinese/Lunar New Year) I had to spend in the lonely company of Miss Zhang. And I really miss all the wonderful food that I used to enjoy before. Nowadays, all I can eat is mashed food that Miss Zhang has to spoon-feed me like a child. When one is sick one is simply deprived of everything in life.” He sighed.

Jiang Qing looked straight into the eyes of her husband, which were almost blinded by the severe cataract that had developed over the years. She simply could not believe and accept the reality that lay before her very own eyes at that moment. Everything about him just seemed so sickly and pitiful. His legs were so skinny and frail that he could hardly stand even with assistance, let alone walk. Over the past few months, he had also been losing a tremendous amount of weight and was not as puffy as he looked before. His disease had also progressed to such a severe state that his right side was paralyzed and he could no longer fully close his mouth. As a result, his nurse had to frequently wipe the drool off his cheeks. His lifetime of smoking had also manifested itself in the form of multiple problems in his lungs, so much so that he even needed a supply of oxygen in his limousine whenever he was to travel anywhere for state or public meetings. If he was not obliged to attend any events outside his official residence of Zhongnanhai, he would just lay uselessly upon the bed the whole day, occasionally getting up to sit on the sofa with much difficulty, even with assistance.

Jiang Qing (江青), First Lady of the People's Republic of China during the rule of the "Great Chairman"

As Jiang Qing caressed the great Chairman’s head gently, she gave a soft kiss on his cheek before promising to return soon. Upon stepping out of Building 202, she bumped into the great Chairman’s personal physician, Dr Li Zhisui (李志绥, Lĭ Zhìsuī), who had been faithfully attending to the Chairman’s every ailing need. “May I have a word with you for a while?” he asked of her.

“Why, of course. Is this something to do with him?” she said, pointing into the room that she just departed from.

“Well actually, yes. Perhaps I should just go straight to the point and not waste any of your precious time. You are aware of the fact that our great Chairman suffered a heart attack three days ago, right?”

“Well, yes. That was what Hua told me when he called me back from my trip.”

“Quite so. This heart attack is no doubt worse than his last one a few months ago, and it has affected a larger area of his heart. After much persuasion, we also conducted an X-ray for him, from which we found out that his lung infection had become more severe over the last few days. Besides, his urine output had dipped down to less than 300 cc per day in these past few days,” the doctor explained.

“And is there anything I can do to help?” asked the First Lady earnestly.

“There is one thing that we may require your assistance with. We need to monitor his complications, but it may be quite difficult for us to do so if we cannot take blood samples from him. He has adamantly resisted any efforts on our part to persuade him for blood tests. If you may just see what you can do to persuade him…”

“I understand, Dr Li. But I can’t promise you anything, since I can see that somewhere deep inside him, he harbours some resentment for me, judging from how he spoke to me the other day,” replied the First Lady. “Anyway, if there’s anything else that you would need me to do, do look me up in my chambers.”

“Of course he resents you; it’s just that he doesn’t show it too much. Seeing how you always make use of his position and influence to build your own, and seeing how little you actually care for him inside your heart…well, the Chairman is not altogether blind, you know. We can see that the only reason you care for him is because his death would put your own political position in jeopardy, and that’s probably why you resent Hua that much as well,” the doctor thought to himself as the First Lady walked back to the Spring Lotus Chamber.

*          *          *

(Continued in next part)

When a ‘Chinese God’ Died – Mao Zedong and the Cultural Revolution (Part 1b)

(Continued from previous part)

“What has happened to my dear husband?!” Jiang Qing demanded from the nurses, as she sped off as fast as she could to Building 202. The afternoon sunlight of September 7 was shining brightly upon the corridors. Upon reaching the room where her husband laid, she was shocked to find out that her husband was in a more critical condition that he had been the previous day.

“My dear husband!” she shouted, but the medical team motioned her to keep quiet. The great Chairman had just fallen asleep and badly needed rest after a long session of intense treatment to stabilize his condition and keep him alive.

“NO! How can I keep quiet, knowing that my poor husband is in pain?” she protested loudly. “He needs a good rub on his back and some massage,” she continued.

“My good lady, the Chairman is really tired and needs his rest. I implore you to allow him some sleep and not to trouble him further,” started one of the doctors beside the Chairman’s bed.

“NO! I insist that he gets some massage and a good rub on his back to relieve his pain!” the First Lady said in an even firmer voice.

Without waiting for any reply from the medical team, she rushed to the Chairman’s bedside and tried to raise him up from his bed. He was fast asleep, but upon being shaken a few times by her, he slowly opened his eyes and looked at her with a look of partial annoyance, as if he was just awoken from a pleasant dream. Nevertheless, he was simply too weak to utter any words of protest and just allowed himself to be manipulated as and how she liked.

 Jiang Qing and the "Great Chairman" in younger and healthier days

“He needs a good rub on his back, and we need to exercise his limbs a bit. He’s not been moving for days, and we really need to get those limbs moving at least a little. He can’t just stay immobile on the bed for the rest of his life and suffer all the pain!” she exclaimed. “And yes,” she proceeded to a cupboard in the corner of the room and took out a small container, “he needs some powder to ease his pain.”

“Do you mean to tell me that you wish to sprinkle powder on his body?!” the doctor-in-charge came closer. “My good lady, this is getting too much. As you are well aware, the Chairman has just suffered a serious bout of lung infection, and is currently experiencing some difficulty breathing as a result. The powder is just going to worsen his condition! All he needs now is clean air, NOT DUSTY POWDERED AIR!!!”

There was a tone of finality in the doctor’s last words that compelled Jiang Qing to put down the small container on the bedside table, albeit with a sulky face like that of a child being scolded by her teacher. She then turned to the great Chairman and raised her hand to caress his balding head softly, while the doctors slowly filed out of the room one after another.

Being aware that the doctors had left the room, Jiang Qing then picked up the container, opened it and applied some of it onto the Chairman’s body. “Don’t just stand there, help me sprinkle powder all over his body!” she instructed the nurses who remained in the room, standing beside the bed.

“But, my lady…”

“No buts! We need to help him ease his pain, and I’m very sure the powder would help. My mother has been using it since I was young, and I find that it really helps.”

Knowing better than to pick a quarrel with the tiger-like lady, the nurses silently followed her example and sprinkled powder all over the Chairman’s body. The Chairman, being well-aware of what was happening, opened his mouth to protest, but could find no voice to express himself.

*          *          *

 Jiang Qing, being an actress in her younger days, featured in a film poster in 1934

“WHY DON’T YOU LISTEN TO ME?!” The shrill, furious voice that was recognizably Jiang Qing’s rang through the corridors of Building 202, breaking the silence of the morning of September 8.

“My lady, your demand is simply outrageous! In my professional capacity, I cannot allow you to do such a thing and cause harm to the Chairman,” replied the doctor-in-charge.

“Look at him. For these past few days he has been lying only on his left side for too long. We need to shift him to another sleeping position, or else his bedsores are going to worsen.”

“My good lady, how many times must I tell you that such an action will only be harmful for the Chairman? His lungs have worsened to such a state that he can only breathe on his left side. Shifting him to any other position would undoubtedly cause him difficulty to breathe, do you understand?” the doctor tried to make a point.

“Please listen to the doctor. He knows better in matters such as these,” Hua Guofeng, who was also in the room at that time, urged the First Lady.

“And what do you know? Who are you to tell me what I should and should not do?” she snapped at Hua.

Without waiting for any reply from either of them, Jiang Qing stretched out her arms and moved the great Chairman to his right side with all her might. Both the doctor and Hua started forward to stop her reckless action, but it was too late. In an instant, the great Chairman stopped breathing, as he began gasping for air desperately. His face turned blue and his expressions became twisted with absolute discomfort. The damage was done, and by the time Jiang Qing realized it, she was shoved out of the room forcefully by Hua while the doctors quickly attended to the damage with a respirator and emergency cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).

 Entrance to Zhongnanhai (中南海) as seen in Beijing today

“JIANG QING, DO YOU REALIZE THE CONSEQUENCES OF YOUR RECKLESS AND FOOLISH IDEAS NOW?! WHY CAN’T YOU LISTEN TO THE DOCTOR FOR ONCE?!” roared Hua to the stuck-up First Lady.

Receiving no reply whatsoever, he continued, “At this rate, I’m not surprised if what you are doing will only hasten the death of our beloved Chairman instead of delaying it. As such, I’m going to give instructions NOT to allow you anywhere near him anymore after this, so that you will not interfere with the medical team’s efforts in treating him.” He turned to his back and left before she could utter a word of defense for her actions.

Jiang Qing stood there, muttering curses of the vilest nature under her breath while staring at Hua’s back with venomous eyes. After regaining her composure, she started off for the Chairman’s room, wanting to know his fate after the careless incident. Just as she held out her hand and was about to grab hold of the door handle did the door open and one of the doctors appear before her.

 The "Great Chairman" (left), experiencing poorer health in his later years, meeting with Hua Guofeng (right)

“Doctor, how is he?” she started.

“It’s really fortunate that he’s still alive, but barely. My lady, I beg of you not to interfere in our work anymore, and I have strict orders not to permit you in anymore in light of your reckless actions to our honourable Chairman. I hope you understand the gravity of the current situation and cooperate with us in this matter.”

*          *          *

With all his remaining strength mustered and concentrated upon his almost paralyzed voice box, the great Chairman mumbled a few words which were hardly audible to his personal nurse, Zhang Yufeng. “I feel very ill. Call the doctors.”

Without further ado, the nurse rushed out of the room into the darkening evening of September 8 and returned a few minutes later with the complete medical armada, armed with medical tools, drugs and knowledge to combat and defeat the clutches of death that was slowly but surely gripping the great Chairman. The entire medical team paced rapidly into the room and started their work without delay. Getting the life support systems up and running, the doctors and nurses worked their expert ways gracefully, although the change in their facial expressions indicated that the inevitable was undeniably creeping closer with every passing minute. Not wanting to give up that easily, they continued their work, pacing around the room, gathering the necessary tools and medications, monitoring the condition of the great Chairman closely and making sure that any possible errors were kept to the most minimal levels.

Nonetheless, as the night progressed, the great Chairman gradually succumbed to the natural laws of mankind. One by one, his organs began to fail, as he rapidly deteriorated beyond the point of saving. He was barely alive, and all that kept him going was the life support system that was still connected to him. When all hope was finally lost, the doctors convened and came to a unanimous decision to remove the life support system a few minutes after midnight. “I suggest that we do it after midnight, since the great Chairman’s passing would be more easily remembered if it was on September 9 (9/9),” one of the doctors suggested.

And so, it was done. The great Chairman, who was perhaps most sweetly remembered for his establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 but most bitterly remembered for his implementation of the ruthless Cultural Revolution in 1966, breathed his last just a few minutes after the midnight bell of September 9 struck. And the nation thus mourned the passing of a “Chinese God,” and not few also who rejoiced over the end of a “tyrant Emperor’s” reign.

The body of the "Great Chairman" lying in state, as people came to pay their last respects to him after his death on September 9, 1976

*          *          *

(Continued in next part)

When a ‘Chinese God’ Died – Mao Zedong and the Cultural Revolution (Part 2)

(Continued from previous part)

Indeed, the demise of Mao Zedong (毛泽东, Máo Zédōng) (1893 – 1976), the highly venerated and feared Chairman of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国主席, Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó Zhŭxí), on September 9, 1976 brought about mixed reactions from Chinese citizens all over the country. While many bitterly mourned the passing of a “beloved and compassionate God,” there were also not few who rejoiced, albeit silently in their hearts, over the end of an era of persecution and terror under a “ruthless and tyrant Emperor.”

 Mao Zedong (毛泽东), more affably known as Chairman Mao (毛主席, Máo Zhŭxí)

The story that I’ve written in the first two parts of this article reflects the last moments of the life of Mao Zedong, or the “great Chairman,” as he is commonly venerated as. True to the words of the doctor in the story, Jiang Qing (1914 – 1991) reportedly showed minimal signs of grief in the days that followed after Mao’s death. Instead, she was more interested and focused in consolidating power and grasp over the Chinese Communist Party and the Chinese government as a whole. Alongside her close associates, Zhang Chunqiao (张春桥, Zhāng Chūnqiáo) (1917 – 2005), Yao Wenyuan (姚文元, Yáo Wényuán) (1931 – 2005) and Wang Hongwen (王洪文, Wáng Hóngwén) (1935 – 1992), she played a major role in the execution of the Cultural Revolution that swept throughout China. In desperate attempts to usurp power after Mao’s death, the four of them, collectively and popularly known as the Gang of Four (四人帮, Sìrén bāng), were arrested on October 6, 1976, nearly a month after Mao’s death. Thus, the efforts of the Gang of Four were stopped, and they were subsequently charged for usurping state power and persecuting many people to death during the Cultural Revolution.

 The infamous Gang of Four: (clockwise, from top left) Wang Hongwen (王洪文), Zhang Chunqiao (张春桥), Jiang Qing (江青) and Yao Wenyuan (姚文元)

Having said so much about the Cultural Revolution without giving much explanation about it, some of you may now be wondering what exactly this is. With that, let us now look into the Cultural Revolution itself.

The Great Proletariat Cultural Revolution (无产阶级文化大革命, Wúchǎnjiējí Wénhuà Dàgémìng), or simply known as the Cultural Revolution (文化大革命, Wénhuà Dàgémìng), was a massive movement that swept through the People’s Republic of China under the leadership of Mao Zedong. Beginning with Mao’s official declaration in 1966, the revolution was aimed at eradicating all traces of capitalism and replacing it with socialism. In order to achieve this aim, many methods were employed, most of which were even violent and oppressive.

 A propaganda poster featuring Mao Zedong, produced during the Cultural Revolution to promote Maoist thought. The Chinese slogan in the poster literally means "The People's Liberation Army of China is the main school of Mao Zedong's thought"

For the benefit of those of you who are not very familiar with economic terms, let me explain to you. Capitalism is essentially an economic system whereby means of production are privately-owned and are driven by the free market for a private profit. Socialism, on the other hand, is the opposite of capitalism, whereby means of production are publicly-owned and are sometimes regulated by the state. In the case of the Cultural Revolution, the Communist government advocated the establishment of a socialist economic system controlled and owned by the working class (proletariat) rather than the wealthy or capitalist class (bourgeois).

Capitalism was thought by the Communist government to be a remnant of the feudal system practiced in imperial China and as such, was thought to be incompatible and oppressive to the common people. Socialism, on the other hand, was viewed to be more favourable, since it advocates the redistribution of wealth in society and promotes equality of class. As a result, the Cultural Revolution was thought to be a necessary step by the Chinese Communist Party to fully eradicate capitalism and promote socialism so as to produce an equal society for all. Nonetheless, methods employed to achieve this aim were utterly ruthless and oppressive, as it caused more harm than good to the people.

In order to execute the Cultural Revolution among the common people, Mao organized a mass movement comprising mainly students and youngsters, which then came to be known as Red Guards (红卫兵, Hóng wèibīng). The Red Guards, who staunchly upheld Mao’s principles of socialism, went throughout the whole of China and forced these principles upon everyone whom they met. Resistance on the part of the common people was often met with violence and merciless treatment from the Red Guards, some even resulting in brutal deaths. The Red Guards often took commands from Mao himself, as well as from the Gang of Four, who played major roles in overseeing and executing strategies for the Cultural Revolution.

Doubtless to say, the Cultural Revolution covered a very vast scope of reforms in the political, economic and social spheres of China. In this article, however, I only intend to give an overview of the socio-cultural and socio-religious aspects of the Cultural Revolution.

 The Red Guards (红卫兵), Chairman Mao's "police" during the Cultural Revolution

As part of the Cultural Revolution, Mao promoted the Destruction of the Four Olds (破四旧, Pò Sìjiù), which primarily involved efforts to totally eliminate the Four Olds, namely Old Customs (旧风俗, Jiù Fēngsú), Old Culture (旧文化, Jiù Wénhuà), Old Habits (旧习惯, Jiù Xíguàn) and Old Ideas (旧思想, Jiù Sīxiǎng). The Four Olds were thought to be either influences from China’s imperial era or foreign colonial powers and, as such, were blamed to promote feudalism and capitalism in Chinese society. In carrying out the Destruction of the Four Olds, the Red Guards commonly shouted propagandistic slogans such as “Destroy the Four Olds, Establish the Four News!” (“破四旧，立四新”, Pò Sìjiù, Lì Sìxīn) and “Destroy the Old World, Forge the New World!” (“打碎旧世界，创立新世界”, Dǎsuì Jiùshìjiè, Chuànglì Xīnshìjiè) wherever they went.

 A propaganda poster promoting the Destruction of the Four Olds campaign. Written in the poster is "Destroy the Old World, Forge the New World!"

The Destruction of the Four Olds campaign involved getting rid of anything deemed to be inherited from the past, since such things were perceived as personifying and potentially promoting elements of feudalism and capitalism. Besides, it also involved destruction of all things seen as foreign in origin. Indeed, the aim of the campaign was to virtually eliminate all traces of China’s past and foreign influences of any sort, ranging from traditional Chinese literary works and artifacts to places of worship and holy scriptures. This was to ensure that nothing was left to remind the people of feudalistic or capitalistic elements so that an entirely socialist society could be shaped within China.

Many radical changes were forced upon the people by the Red Guards, starting from Beijing. Names of places which seem to bear traditional meanings were deemed to be feudalistic and capitalistic, thus they were changed to new names bearing revolutionary meanings. For example, a particular place in Beijing known as Chang’an (长安, Cháng’ān) Avenue, which in Chinese means “Avenue of Everlasting Peace”, was changed to Dongfang Hong Road (东方红大街, Dōngfāng Hóng Dàjiē), which means “Red Sun From The East Road” (Red Sun being a symbol of Chinese communism under Mao). In another case, a clothes store named Blue Sky (蓝天, Lántiān) was forced to change its name to Weidong (卫东, Wèidōng), which means “Defend Mao Zedong.”

Many people, especially the Red Guards, also changed their given names to reflect Mao Zedong’s revolutionary ideas and movements. Names that gained much popularity during the era of the Cultural Revolution include Weidong (卫东, Wèidōng), which means “Defend Mao Zedong,” and Jige (继革, Jìgé), which means “Continuing the Revolution.” In fact, parents who gave birth during this era also preferred such names when naming their children.

 Public performance by the Red Guards during the era of the Cultural Revolution

It was also not uncommon to see zealous Red Guards marching through the city streets, setting up booths by the roadside and acting as self-declared “moral police,” in which they base their actions and justifications on self-imposed laws of moral conduct. In their eyes, high-heeled shoes, dresses, skirts and jeans were considered to be clothing worn by the capitalist classes and as such, were banned under these self-imposed laws. Anyone caught wearing them would be stopped by the Red Guards and forced to surrender their clothing to them for immediate destruction, refusal of which would result in forceful stripping of such clothing in public. Even women with long braids were not spared, as long braids were seen as remnants of feudalism. Such women, upon being caught, were forced to have their hair cut short, as short hair was perceived by the Red Guards to symbolize women’s independence. Indeed, women were not allowed to dress as women, simply because feminine dresses were considered to be clothing for the capitalist classes. Instead, women were expected to dress in soldier-like uniforms that reflected more closely the working classes.

 Chairman Mao wearing his trademark suit, commonly dubbed the "Mao suit."  People were expected to wear this suit as a symbol of proletariat unity

In the name of revolution, the Red Guards often intruded upon home privacy. They frequently forced their way into homes and rummaged through the entire house in search of anything deemed to be remnants of the past or foreign. Diaries, vases, pieces of art, works of classical literature, family genealogy books, traditional Chinese clothing, Western suits and even family photos were common items that were searched for and destroyed on the spot. Foreign currency, precious stones and gold were also confiscated to be handed over to the government, while books in foreign languages, including English, were burned. As if that was not enough, family members were often punished mercilessly for the “crimes” of possessing such items and reading books in foreign languages including English.

During the Cultural Revolution, history and cultural heritage bore no value whatsoever in the eyes of Chairman Mao, the Gang of Four and the Red Guard revolutionists. Historical icons and structures throughout China were heartlessly destroyed. Temples, ancient buildings and historical sites were targeted as objects of demolition. Moreover, museums nationwide were turned upside down, with numerous artworks, classical writings and antiques crushed to pieces. It was said that approximately 4922 out of 6843 officially designated historical sites in Beijing alone suffered damage in one form or another during the Cultural Revolution. 

 Destruction of the Four Olds being zealously carried out by the public in order to destroy anything deemed to be remnants of China's past or foreign in origin

Even China’s biggest pride, the Great Wall of China (万里长城, Wànlĭ Chángchéng), did not escape the revolutionists’ radar. Parts of the Great Wall were reportedly vandalized, with bricks being hauled out and used as building materials for roads and houses. Fortunately, however, the revolutionists did not concentrate much of their energy in annihilating the prized Chinese heritage and thus, it stands till today. Another structure that was apparently targeted by the Red Guards but fortunately survived their onslaught was the Forbidden Palace (紫禁城, Zĭjìnchéng) in Beijing. Thanks to the efforts of Zhou Enlai (周恩来, Zhōu Ēnlái) (1898 – 1976), the first Premier of the People’s Republic of China who was downright against the revolution but did not have much power to act against Chairman Mao’s orders, the Forbidden Palace was protected from ruthless assaults by the Red Guards. Upon hearing that the Red Guards were targeting the Forbidden Palace next, Premier Zhou ordered the gates of the palace to be shut and troops to be posted to defend the iconic structure.

 The Forbidden Palace (紫禁城) as seen in Beijing today

In the hearts of many Chinese, Confucius (孔夫子, Kŏng Fūzĭ) (551 – 479 BC) is revered as one of the most learned sages of all time. Even up to today, his philosophies and teachings are held with high regard and play major roles in shaping Chinese thought and values. Nonetheless, during the Cultural Revolution, he was stripped of such honour by the radical revolutionists under Mao Zedong and was downgraded to the lowly status of a murderer and hypocrite. His teachings were considered to be backward-looking and were thus labeled as poison and lies through propaganda. In their fanatical efforts to purge Confucian thought from Chinese society under the Destruction of the Four Olds campaign, the Red Guards even went to the extent of invading Confucius’ hometown of Qufu (曲阜, Qŭfù), destroying ancient statues and structures that were erected in his honour, defiling the tombs of Confucius and his descendants, and burning Confucian writings.

Confucius (孔夫子), renowned and revered Chinese scholar and philosopher

Indeed, in the name of revolution for eradicating capitalism and feudalism, and establishing socialism, Mao Zedong and the Red Guards were eagerly willing to sacrifice the very heart of Chinese pride – its culture and heritage. Without even sparing much thought for the tireless efforts of bygone generations in preserving valuable elements of Chinese culture, they did all they could to entirely wipe out the Chinese identity. Nonetheless, as you will see if you proceed to the next part of this article, it was not only Chinese culture that suffered in the hands of Chairman Mao, the Gang of Four and the Red Guards, but also all religions with significant presences throughout China.