“People of the Western Ocean (Europeans), should they propagate in the
country the religion of the Lord of Heaven, or clandestinely print books, or
collect congregations to be preached to, and thereby deceive many people, or
should any Tartar or Chinese, in their turn, propagate the doctrines and
clandestinely give names (as in baptism), inflaming and misleading many, if
proved by authentic testimony, the head or leader shall be sentenced to
immediate death by strangulations: he who propagates the religion, inflaming
and deceiving the people, if the number be not large, and no names be given,
shall be sentenced to strangulation after a period of imprisonment. Those who
are merely hearers or followers of the doctrine, if they will not repent and
recant, shall be transported to the Mohammedan cities (in Xinjiang-Turkistan)
and given to be slaves to the beys and other powerful Mohammedans who are able
to coerce them…All civil and military officers who may fail to detect Europeans
clandestinely residing in the country within their jurisdiction, and
propagating their religion, thereby deceiving the multitude, shall be delivered
over to the Supreme Board and be subjected to a court of inquiry.”
(Maclay, 1861)
Under the Great Qing Legal Code (大清律例, Dà Qīng
Lǜ Lì) that governed the
vast empire of Qing Dynasty China, in a statute entitled “Prohibitions
Concerning Sorcerers, Sorceresses and Witchcraft” (禁止师巫邪术, Jìnzhǐ Shīwū Xiéshù), was the above clause to be found. Ratified in
1811 under Emperor Jiaqing (嘉庆帝, Jiāqìng dì) (1760 – 1820),
modified and enforced under Emperor Daoguang (道光帝, Dàoguāng dì) (1782 – 1850)
and repealed in 1870 under Emperor Tongzhi (同治帝, Tóngzhì dì) (1856 – 1875),
the above clause was made in reference to Christianity, as a drastic measure to
curb the spreading of the gospel which was then viewed as a form of
superstition and social ill by the Qing government. Targeting specifically
Catholic Christianity at first, the law soon became enforced towards Protestant
Christianity as well, which saw a rising trend in the Middle Kingdom during the
19th century.
During an era coloured by expanding
Western trade and imperialism in the East, southern Chinese ports such as Hong
Kong (香港, Xiānggăng), Macau (澳门, Àomén), Canton/Guangzhou (广州, Guăngzhōu)
and Amoy/Xiamen (厦门, Xiàmén) saw tremendous growth in importance as China’s commercial
hubs and gateways to the external world. Western powers such as the Portuguese,
Dutch, French and British were increasingly engaged in trade with the Qing
imperial government through these ports, which soon became centres of Western
influence and culture in the Middle Kingdom. It was from these ports that
knowledge of Western culture and sciences flowed into Qing China, and it was
from these ports that Westerners started to acquire deeper insight into the
culture and customs of China. And it was against such a backdrop that Catholic
Christianity made much headway amidst the intricacies and solemnities of
Chinese life under the Qing Dynasty.
Location of the main southern Chinese ports in the 1700s and 1800s
As I’ve covered in an earlier
article entitled Christianity with a Chinese Face – Late Ming & Early Qing Dynasties, Catholic Christianity
was first reintroduced into Ming Dynasty China on a large scale by two
prominent missionaries, namely Matteo Ricci (利玛窦, Lì Mădòu) (1552 – 1610) and
Michele Ruggieri (罗明坚, Luó Míngjiān) (1543 – 1607). Under the generous auspices of the
Ming Emperor Wanli (万历皇帝, Wànlì Huángdì) (1563 – 1620),
Catholic Christianity made much progress not only in the southern Chinese
ports, but also in the imperial capital of Beijing (北京, Běijīng) and several other
cities. Matteo Ricci himself became a prominent and influential figure in the
imperial capital, and the Chinese were always interested to hear what he had to
say about the gospel and Western sciences. With continuous patronage from
succeeding Ming and Qing emperors, missionaries who followed in Father Ricci’s
footsteps, such as Johann Adam Schall von Bell (汤若望, Tāng Ruòwàng) (1591 – 1666)
and Ferdinand Verbiest (南怀仁, Nán Huáirén) (1623 – 1688),
were granted honours of the highest degree and wielded much influence in the
imperial court and throughout the Middle Kingdom. These proved to be highly
favourable for the spread of the gospel throughout China, and this status quo
remained for as long as Qing Emperor Kangxi (康熙帝, Kāngxī dì) (1654 – 1722)
remained on the throne.
Prominent Jesuit missionary and priest to Ming China Father Matteo Ricci (利玛窦, Lì Mădòu) (1552 - 1610)
Nonetheless, the ascension of
Emperor Yongzheng (雍正帝,
Yōngzhèng Dì) (1678 – 1735) to the
throne in 1722 marked a gradual decline for Catholic Christianity in the Middle
Kingdom. Ongoing and unresolved controversies regarding Catholic Christianity
and Chinese culture, combined with the lack of Jesuit (or Catholic) influence
in the imperial court in Beijing eventually led to increasing bouts of
persecution under both Emperor Yongzheng and his successor, Emperor Qianlong (乾隆帝, Qiánlóng
Dì) (1711 – 1799), who sought to purge the gospel and everything seemingly
Western from China. As a result, the 1700s and early 1800s witnessed mass
killings of Catholics, confiscations of their property and deportations of
Western missionaries to the then Portuguese settlement of Macau.
Despite all these, imperial policies
against Catholic Christianity during the 1700s and early 1800s were erratic and
frequently depended upon several factors, particularly the degree of influence
of Jesuits (or Catholic missionaries in general) in the imperial court in
Beijing and official sentiments against Western influences. Until the end of
Emperor Kangxi’s reign in 1722, the Jesuits were the dominant Catholic
missionary group that wielded the most influence and commanded the most respect
in the Qing imperial court. As troubles started brewing among the Jesuits in
Europe, coupled with political suppressions from European powers that
culminated in their disbandment in 1773, Jesuit influence in the Qing imperial
court also waned. So did the amount of persecution against Catholics in China
increase proportionally. This was made worse by escalating suspicions and fears
within the Qing government towards the Western powers in view of their
incessant threats to Chinese territorial sovereignty. Catholic Christianity and
Western missionaries were seen as agents of Western imperialism, and drastic
action had to be taken to surmount these fears.
Emperor Qianlong (乾隆帝, Qiánlóng Dì) (1711 – 1799) of the Qing Dynasty
Although Jesuit influence in the Qing
imperial court did deteriorate until its disbandment in 1773, this did not mean
that Catholic influence in the imperial court was totally obliterated.
Missionaries from other Catholic orders, such as the Dominicans and
Franciscans, took over the role of the Jesuits in the imperial court and they
held positions of prestige in the imperial government. At times when these
Catholic missionaries wielded more influence in the imperial court, official
orders from the emperor would be more favourable towards Catholic Christianity
and the spreading of the gospel, and vice versa. Consequently, anti-Catholic
persecutions in Qing China in the 1700s and early 1800s were sporadic in
nature, with intervals of peace for Catholics intervened by periods of unrest
and oppression.
Courtiers in the Qing Dynasty
Another factor that determined the
degree of official persecution against Chinese Catholics and Western
missionaries was, expectedly, the distance from the imperial capital. Whenever
anti-Christian edicts were issued, killings of innocent lives, harassment of
property and deportation of missionaries were most vigorous in Beijing itself,
followed by areas in closer proximity with it. Provinces located far away from
the capital, such as Fujian (福建, Fújiàn), Guangdong (广东, Guăngdōng), Sichuan (四川, Sìchuān) and Guizhou (贵州, Guìzhōu)
saw more erratic and irregular executions of the emperor’s anti-Christian
orders. As a result, Catholic Christianity continued to survive and made
significant progress amongst the masses in these areas, notwithstanding the
increasing hostilities against Westerners and seemingly foreign influences in
many parts of the empire.
Fujian Province
Location of Fujian Province (shaded in red) in China
Having been introduced into the
southern Chinese province of Fujian since the early days of its arrival on the
shores of Ming Dynasty China, Catholic Christianity had made much progress in
various parts of the province, especially during the reign of the illustrious
Qing Emperor Kangxi. Several localities, most notably Fuzhou (福州, Fúzhōu),
Amoy/Xiamen and Fu’an (福安, Fú’ān) became centres of
spread for the gospel, where large churches and Chinese Christian communities
were to be found. Imperial patronage for Catholic Christianity under Emperor
Kangxi meant that the propagation of the gospel met with little opposition or
hindrance among the local communities. The gospel was well-received by many,
and imperial protection permitted much freedom for Western missionaries and
local Chinese Christians to build churches, hold Masses and organize
gatherings. Catholic Christianity became so popular and well-tolerated that even
non-Christian segments of the local Chinese communities willingly gave their
assistance, some in finances and others in labour, to build new churches.
Things were, however, bound to
change when Emperor Kangxi died in 1722, subsequently paving the way for
Emperor Yongzheng to ascend the throne that same year. One of the first few
changes that the new emperor swiftly implemented in the first few years of his
reign was to proscribe Christianity. Orders were sent to provincial governors
to confiscate local church property, compile lists of Chinese Christians,
oblige them to renounce their newfound faith, and monitor strictly the activities
of Western missionaries. These were carried out by local provincial authorities
in Fujian, but no dire action was taken to eliminate Christianity from Chinese
soil. Rather than taking strict action against Chinese Catholics and Western
missionaries, the provincial authorities adopted a softer approach of merely
monitoring closely Christian activities, much to the displeasure of the emperor
himself.
Emperor Yongzheng (雍正帝, Yōngzhèng Dì) (1678 – 1735)
Emperor Qianlong’s ascension to the
throne in 1735 marked a sharper deterioration in the status of Catholic
Christianity in the Middle Kingdom. Under his reign, more severe measures were
applied to curb the spread of the gospel, so much so that in Fujian, several
Western missionaries and Chinese church leaders were arrested and charged.
While Chinese church leaders were often punished with lighter sentences such as
imprisonment, Western missionaries generally received heftier sentences, often
leading to execution or deportation to Macau. As Chinese Christians in the
province numbered in the thousands, the provincial authorities could not possibly
arrest every Christian they could lay their hands on. Instead, mass campaigns
to destroy Christian literature and prayer materials were carried out, in
addition to restoring and empowering local Confucian academic institutions to
“re-educate” the general public.
Amidst sporadic persecutions
throughout the second half of the 18th century and early 19th
century, Catholic Christianity continued to make headway amongst the masses.
Chinese Christians were trained for priesthood and leadership in the church,
while the size of the Catholic community continued to grow throughout Fujian in
spite of the dangers it faced. Eventually comprising even soldiers, government
secretaries, influential officials and wealthy merchants, the Catholic
community grew in influence and strength. Repeated attempts by provincial
authorities to arrest or harass Chinese Catholics were often met with failure,
either due to protection offered by sympathetic non-Christian members of
society or intervention on the part of influential and powerful Catholics who
were well-respected by the local officials.
Bribery also became a norm in
protecting the Catholic communities. Imperial directives against Catholic
Christianity were often regarded by provincial and local officials as
opportunities to extort money and property from the Catholic communities
without much serious intentions of purging the faith. As such, bribing the
provincial and local authorities could often prevent harassment and buy peace
for the local Catholic communities, besides enabling the release of Western
missionaries and Chinese church leaders who were under arrest. This, of course,
placed heavy financial burdens on the Catholic communities, but the occasional
intervention by officials or influential figures who were Chinese Catholics
themselves helped stop such extortions and harassments.
Nevertheless, the last few years
that led up to the First Opium War (第一次鸦片战争, Dìyīcì Yāpiàn Zhànzhēng) in
1839 saw increasing tensions between the provincial authorities and the
Catholic communities, who were increasingly perceived as agents of Western
powers. False accusations from certain parties that associated Catholic
Christians with secret societies and rebellious activities further aggravated
the situation, consequently leading to a massive anti-Christian campaign in
1837 that left several predominantly Christian villages in Fujian ravaged and
desolate. It was not until the subsequent signing of the unequal treaties
between the British and the Qing Dynasty (which I will be covering later) that
peace and tolerance for Western missionaries and Christian communities were
once again restored in Fujian, as in other provinces as well.
Artist's impression of ships being destroyed during the First Opium War of 1839
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